Perfect competition and demand curve Essay Example for Free

Perfect contender and take abbreviate EssayCOMPARE(SIMILAR) similarity. The cost chromosome mappings are the same. 16 Both monopolies and dead belligerent companies minimize cost and maximize profit. The shutdown decisions are the same. Both are assumed to surrender completely matched factors foodstuffs. compare monopoly and perfect competition is the cardinal characteristics of perfect competition (1) large egress of relatively sm al champion wets, (2) identical growth, (3) put downdom of first appearance and exit, and (4) perfect knowledge. * Number of Firms Perfect competition is an industry comprised of a large number of small firms, for each single of which is a damage taker with no soilet chasteness. Monopoly is an industry comprised of a single(a) firm, which is a scathe groomr with come up market control. Phil the zucchini grower is one of gadzillions of zucchini growers. Feet-First pharmaceutical is the only firm that allots Amblathan-Plus, a drug that cures the deadly (but suppositional) foot ailment cognise as amblathanitis. * Availcapable Substitutes Every firm in a suddenly emulous industry garden trucks exactly the same product as all(prenominal) former(a) firm. An infinite number of perfect transforms are available. A monopoly firm produces a unique product that has no close substitutes and is unlike any other(a) product.Gadzillions of firms grow zucchinis, each of which is a perfect substitute for the zucchinis grown by Phil the zucchini grower. There are no substitutes for Amblathan-Plus. Feet-First Pharmaceutical is the only supplier. * Resource Mobility Perfectly competitive firms occupy complete freedom to enter the industry or exit the industry. There are no roadblocks. A monopoly firm much achieves monopoly status because the entry of say-so competitors is prevented. Anyone squeeze out grow zucchinis. All they need is a plot of land and a few seeds.Feet-First Pharmaceutical holds the seeming(a )s on Amblathan-Plus. No other firm weed enter the market. * Information Each firm in a absolutely competitive industry possesses the same information about footings and toil techniques as every other firm. A monopoly firm, in contrast, often has information unknown to others. Everyone knows how to grow zucchinis (or can easily find out how). Feet-First Pharmaceutical has a secret canon used in the production of Amblathan-Plus. This information is not available to anyone else. The consequence of these differences complicate* First, the look at rationalize for a perfectly competitive firm is perfectly elastic and the choose curve for a monopoly firm is THE market demand, which is negatively-sloped according to the law of demand. A perfectly competitive firm is thus a determine taker and a monopoly is a harm maker. Phil moldiness sell his zucchinis at the going market determine. It he does not like the price, accordingly he does not sell zucchinis. Feet-First Pharmaceutica l can adjust the price of Amblathan-Plus, either higher(prenominal) or lower, and so doing it can control the cadence sold.* Second, the monopoly firm charges a higher price and produces less widening than would be achieved with a perfectly competitive market. In particular, the monopoly price is not equal to peripheral cost, which path a monopoly does not efficiently allocate resources. Although Feet-First Pharmaceutical charges several(prenominal) dollars per ounce of Amblathan-Plus, the cost of producing each ounce is substantially less. Phil, in contrast, just about breaks even on each zucchini sold. * trinity, while an scotch profit is NOT guaranteed for any firm, a monopoly is more likely to receive scotch profit than a perfectly competitive firm.In fact, a perfectly competitive firm IS guaranteed to earn nothing but a normal profit in the long run. The same cannot be give tongue to for monopoly. The price of zucchinis is so close to the cost of production, Phil never earns much profit. If the price is relatively high, other zucchini producers quickly flood the market, eliminating any profit. In contrast, Feet-First Pharmaceutical has been able to maintain a price above production cost for several familys, with a handsome profit perpetually paid to the family shareholders year after year.* Fourth, the domineeringly-sloped bare(a) cost curve for each perfectly competitive firm is its deliver curve. This ensures that the supply curve for a perfectly competitive market is withal positively sloped. The marginal cost curve for a monopoly is NOT, repeat NOT, the firms supply curve. There is NO positively-sloped supply curve for a market controlled by a monopoly. A monopoly might produce a larger quantity if the price is higher, in accordance with the law of supply, or it might not. If the price of zucchinis rises, indeed Phil can afford to grow more.If the price falls, then he is forced to grow less. Marginal cost dictates what Phil can produc e and supply. Feet-First Pharmaceutical, in comparison, often sells a larger quantity of Amblathan-Plus as the price falls, because they face decreasing intermediate cost with larger scale production. * The single vender, of course, is a direct contrast to perfect competition, which has a large number of sellers. In fact, perfect competition could be renamed multipoly or manypoly, to contrast it with monopoly. The nearly important aspect of being a single seller is that the monopoly seller IS the market.The market demand for a good IS the demand for the widening produced by the monopoly. This makes monopoly a price maker, rather than a price taker. * A hypothetical example that can be used to illustrate the features of a monopoly is Feet-First Pharmaceutical. This firm owns the patent to Amblathan-Plus, the only cure for the deadly (but hypothetical) foot ailment known as amblathanitis. As the only producer of Amblathan-Plus, Feet-First Pharmaceutical is a monopoly with extensiv e market control. The market demand for Amblathan-Plus is THE demand for Amblathan-Plus sold by Feet-First Pharmaceutical.* Unique merchandise * To be the only seller of a product, however, a monopoly must have a unique product. Phil the zucchini grower is the only producer of Phils zucchinis. The problem for Phil, however, is that gadzillions of other firms sell zucchinis that are indistinguishable from those sold by Phil. * Amblathan-Plus, in contrast, is a unique product. There are no close substitutes. Feet-First Pharmaceutical holds the exclusive patent on Amblathan-Plus. No other firm has the legal authority to produced Amblathan-Plus.And even if they had the legal authority, the secret formula for producing Amblathan-Plus is sealed external in an airtight jump deep inside the fortified Feet-First Pharmaceutical headquarters. * Of course, other medications exist that might alleviate some of the symptoms of amblathanitis. One ointment temporarily reduces the sfountainheading . Another powder relieves the redness. tho nothing else exists to cure amblathanitis completely. A few highly imperfect substitutes exists. But there are no close substitutes for Amblathan-Plus. Feet-First Pharmaceutical has a monopoly because it is the ONLY seller of a UNIQUE product.* Barriers to gateway and Exit * A monopoly is generally assured of being the ONLY firm in a market because of assorted barriers to entry. approximately of the key barriers to entry are (1) government license or franchise, (2) resource ownership, (3) patents and copyrights, (4) high start-up cost, and (5) decreasing average gist cost. * Feet-First Pharmaceutical has a few these barriers working(a) in its favor. It has, for example, an exclusive patent on Amblathan-Plus. The government has decreed that Feet-First Pharmaceutical, and only Feet-First Pharmaceutical, has the legal authority to produce and sell Amblathan-Plus.* Moreover, the secret ingredient used to produce Amblathan-Plus is obtained from a rare, genetically enhanced, eucalyptus tree grown only on a Brazilian plantation owned by Feet-First Pharmaceutical. Even if another firm k cutting how to produce Amblathan and had the legal authority to do so, they would lack access to this essential ingredient. * A monopoly might also face barriers to exiting a market. If government deems that the product provided by the monopoly is essential for well-being of the public, then the monopoly might be prevented from leaving the market.Feet-First Pharmaceutical, for example, cannot simply cease the production of Amblathan-Plus. It is essential to the health and welfare of the public. * This barrier to exit is most often applied to public utilities, much(prenominal) as electricity companies, natural gas distribution companies, local telephone companies, and garbage collection companies. These are often deemed essential services that cannot be discontinued without permission from a government regulation authority. * Specialized Information * Monopoly is commonly characterized by control of information or production technology not available to others.This specialized information often comes in the form of legally-established patents, copyrights, or trademarks. While these create legal barriers to entry they also indicate that information is not perfectly shared by all. The ATT telephone monopoly of the late 1800s and early 1900s was largely due to the telephone patent. Pharmaceutical companies, like the hypothetical Feet-First Pharmaceutical, regularly monopolize the market for a specific drug by virtue of a patent. * In addition, a monopoly firm might know something or have a piece of information that is not available to others.This something may or may not be patented or copyrighted. It could be a secret recipe or formula. Perhaps it is a unique method of production. * One example of specialized information is the special, secret formula for producing Amblathan-Plus that is sealed away in an airtight vaul t deep inside the fortified Feet-First Pharmaceutical headquarters. No one else has this information. CONTRAST Arguably, perfect competition has the advantage of promoting consumer sovereignty, in the comprehend that the goods and services produced are those that consumers have voted for when spending the pounds in their pockets.When consumer sovereignty exists, the consumer is king. (However, the extent to which consumer choice exists in a perfectly competitive world would be extremely learned. All the firms in a particular market would sell identical goods at an identical price, namely the ruling market price. ) Firms and industries that produce goods other than those for which consumers are prepared to pay, do not survive in perfect competition. By contrast, a monopoly may enjoy producer sovereignty. The goods and services available for consumers to misdirect are determined by the monopolizer rather than by consumer preferences expressed in the market place.Even if producer so vereignty is not exercised on a take-it-or-leave-it basis by a monopoly, the monopolizer may still possess sufficient market power to manipulate consumer wants through such marketing devices as persuasive advertising. In these situations, the producer is king In contrast to perfect competition and once again assuming an absence of economies of scale monopoly equilibrium is both(prenominal) productively and allocatively inefficient. Figure 6. 6 shows that at the profit-maximising aim of output Q1, the monopolists average costs are above the minimum level and that P MC.Thus, compared to perfect competition, a monopoly produces too low an output which it sells at too high a price. The absence of competitive pressures, which in perfect competition serve to eliminate supernormal profit, mean that a monopoly is also likely to be X-inefficient, incurring average costs at a flower such as X which is above the average cost curve. A monopoly may be able to survive, perfectly happily and enjoying an light life, incurring unnecessary production costs and making satisfactory rather than maximum net income. This is because barriers to entry protect monopolies.As a result, the absence or weakness of competitive forces nitty-gritty there is no mechanism in monopoly to eliminate organisational slack. 62 Marginal tax tax tax and price In a perfectly competitive market price equals marginal gross. In a monopolistic market marginal revenue is less than price. 17 * Product differentiation There is zero product differentiation in a perfectly competitive market. Every product is perfectly homogeneous and a perfect substitute for any other. With a monopoly, there is great to infrangible product differentiation in the sense that there is no available substitute for a monopolized good.The monopolist is the sole supplier of the good in question. 18 A customer either buys from the monopolizing entity on its terms or does without. * Number of competitors PC markets are popu lated by an infinite number of buyers and sellers. Monopoly involves a single seller. 18 * Barriers to Entry Barriers to entry are factors and circumstances that prevent entry into market by would-be competitors and limit new companies from operating and expanding within the market. PC markets have free entry and exit. There are no barriers to entry, exit or competition. Monopolies have relatively high barriers to entry.The barriers must be strong enough to prevent or discourage any potential competitor from entering the market. * Elasticity of Demand The price elasticity of demand is the percentage diverge of demand caused by a one percent change of relative price. A successful monopoly would have a relatively nonresilient demand curve. A low coefficient of elasticity is suggestive of effective barriers to entry. A PC familiarity has a perfectly elastic demand curve. The coefficient of elasticity for a perfectly competitive demand curve is infinite. * excess Profits- Excess or positive profits are profit more than the normal expected show on investment.A PC company can make excess profits in the short term but excess profits rip competitors which can enter the market freely and minify prices, eventually reducing excess profits to zero. 19 A monopoly can preserve excess profits because barriers to entry prevent competitors from entering the market. 20 * Profit Maximization A PC company maximizes profits by producing such that price equals marginal costs. A monopoly maximises profits by producing where marginal revenue equals marginal costs. 21 The rules are not equivalent. The demand curve for a PC company is perfectly elastic flat.The demand curve is identical to the average revenue curve and the price line. Since the average revenue curve is constant the marginal revenue curve is also constant and equals the demand curve, fairish revenue is the same as price (AR = TR/Q = P x Q/Q = P). Thus the price line is also identical to the demand curve. In sum, D = AR = MR = P. * P-Max quantity, price and profit If a monopolist obtains control of a formerly perfectly competitive industry, the monopolist would increase prices, reduce production, and realise positive economic profits.22 * Supply Curve in a perfectly competitive market there is a well defined supply function with a one to one relationship in the midst of price and quantity supplied. 23 In a monopolistic market no such supply relationship exists. A monopolist cannot trace a short term supply curve because for a given price there is not a unique quantity supplied. As Pindyck and Rubenfeld note a change in demand can lead to changes in prices with no change in output, changes in output with no change in price or both. 24 Monopolies produce where marginal revenue equals marginal costs.For a specific demand curve the supply curve would be the price/quantity combination at the point where marginal revenue equals marginal cost. If the demand curve shifted the marginal reve nue curve would shift as well and a new equilibrium and supply point would be established. The locus of these points would not be a supply curve in any customary sense. 2526 The most significant distinction between a PC company and a monopoly is that the monopoly has a declivitous demand curve rather than the perceived perfectly elastic curve of the PC company.27 Practically all the variations above mentioned relate to this fact. If there is a downward-sloping demand curve then by destiny there is a distinct marginal revenue curve. The implications of this fact are best made manifest with a linear demand curve. Assume that the backward demand curve is of the form x = a by. Then the total revenue curve is TR = ay by2 and the marginal revenue curve is thus MR = a 2by. From this several things are evident. First the marginal revenue curve has the same y intercept as the inverse demand curve.Second the slope of the marginal revenue curve is twice that of the inverse demand curve. Third the x intercept of the marginal revenue curve is half that of the inverse demand curve. What is not rather so evident is that the marginal revenue curve is below the inverse demand curve at all points. 27 Since all companies maximise profits by equating MR and MC it must be the effort that at the profit maximizing quantity MR and MC are less than price which further implies that a monopoly produces less quantity at a higher price than if the market were perfectly competitive.The fact that a monopoly has a downward-sloping demand curve means that the relationship between total revenue and output for a monopoly is much different than that of competitive companies. 28 Total revenue equals price times quantity. A competitive company has a perfectly elastic demand curve meaning that total revenue is proportional to output. 29 Thus the total revenue curve for a competitive company is a ray with a slope equal to the market price. 29 A competitive company can sell all the output it desires at the market price. For a monopoly to increase gross sales it must reduce price.Thus the total revenue curve for a monopoly is a parabola that begins at the kickoff and reaches a maximum value then unceasingly decreases until total revenue is again zero. 30 Total revenue has its maximum value when the slope of the total revenue function is zero. The slope of the total revenue function is marginal revenue. So the revenue maximizing quantity and price occur when MR = 0. For example assume that the monopolys demand function is P = 50 2Q. The total revenue function would be TR = 50Q 2Q2 and marginal revenue would be 50 4Q. Setting marginal revenue equal to zero we have 1.50 4Q = 0 2. -4Q = -50 3. Q = 12. 5 So the revenue maximizing quantity for the monopoly is 12. 5 units and the revenue maximizing price is 25. A company with a monopoly does not experience price pressure from competitors, although it may experience pricing pressure from potential competition. If a compan y increases prices too much, then others may enter the market if they are able to provide the same good, or a substitute, at a lesser price. 31 The idea that monopolies in markets with easy entry need not be set against is known as the revolution in monopoly theory.32 A monopolist can exceptionalct only one premium,clarification needed and getting into complementary markets does not pay. That is, the total profits a monopolist could earn if it sought to leverage its monopoly in one market by monopolizing a complementary market are equal to the extra profits it could earn anyway by charging more for the monopoly product itself. However, the one monopoly profit theorem is not align if customers in the monopoly good are stranded or poorly informed, or if the tied good has high fixed costs.A pure monopoly has the same economic rationality of perfectly competitive companies, i.e. to optimise a profit function given some constraints. By the assumptions of increasing marginal costs, exo genous inputs prices, and control difficult on a single agent or entrepreneur, the optimal decision is to equate the marginal cost and marginal revenue of production. Nonetheless, a pure monopoly can -unlike a competitive company- alter the market price for its own convenience a decrease of production results in a higher price. In the economics jargon, it is said that pure monopolies have a downward-sloping demand.An important consequence of such behaviour is worth noticing typically a monopoly selects a higher price and lesser quantity of output than a price-taking company again, less is available at a higher price. 33 Sources of monopoly power Monopolies derive their market power from barriers to entry circumstances that prevent or greatly dummy up a potential competitors ability to compete in a market. There are three major types of barriers to entry economic, legal and deliberate. 6 * Economic barriers Economic barriers allow in economies of scale, capital requirements, cost advantages and technological favourable position.7 Economies of scale Monopolies are characterised by decreasing costs for a relatively large range of production. 8 Decreasing costs pair with large initial costs give monopolies an advantage over would-be competitors. Monopolies are often in a position to reduce prices below a new entrants operating costs and thereby prevent them from continuing to compete. 8 Furthermore, the size of the industry relative to the minimum efficient scale may limit the number of companies that can effectively compete within the industry.If for example the industry is large enough to support one company of minimum efficient scale then other companies entering the industry will operate at a size that is less than MES, meaning that these companies cannot produce at an average cost that is competitive with the dominant company. Finally, if long-term average cost is constantly decreasing, the least cost method to provide a good or service is by a single c ompany. 9 Capital requirements Production processes that require large investments of capital, or large research and development costs or substantial sunk costs limit the number of companies in an industry.10 Large fixed costs also make it difficult for a small company to enter an industry and expand. 11 Technological superiority A monopoly may be better able to acquire, integrate and use the best possible technology in producing its goods while entrants do not have the size or finances to use the best available technology. 8 One large company can sometimes produce goods cheaper than several small companies. 12 No substitute goods A monopoly sells a good for which there is no close substitute. The absence of substitutes makes the demand for the good relatively inelastic enabling monopolies to extract positive profits.Control of natural resources A prime source of monopoly power is the control of resources that are critical to the production of a final good. Network externalities The use of a product by a person can affect the value of that product to other people. This is the network effect. There is a direct relationship between the proportion of people using a product and the demand for that product. In other words the more people who are using a product the greater the probability of any individual starting to use the product. This effect accounts for fads and fashion trends.13 It also can play a crucial role in the development or acquisition of market power. The most famous current example is the market dominance of the Microsoft operating system in personal computers. * profound barriers Legal rights can provide opportunity to monopolise the market of a good. Intellectual property rights, including patents and copyrights, give a monopolist exclusive control of the production and selling of certain goods. Property rights may give a company exclusive control of the materials necessary to produce a good.* Deliberate actions A company wanting to monopolise a market may engage in various types of deliberate action to exclude competitors or eliminate competition. Such actions include collusion, lobbying governmental authorities, and force (see anti-competitive practices). In addition to barriers to entry and competition, barriers to exit may be a source of market power. Barriers to exit are market conditions that make it difficult or expensive for a company to end its involvement with a market. Great liquidation costs are a primary barrier for exiting.14 Market exit and shutdown are separate events. The decision whether to shut down or operate is not affected by exit barriers. A company will shut down if price falls below minimum average variable costs. Monopoly versus competitive markets While monopoly and perfect competition mark the extremes of market structures15 there is some similarity. The cost functions are the same. 16 Both monopolies and perfectly competitive companies minimize cost and maximize profit. The shutdown decisions a re the same. Both are assumed to have perfectly competitive factors markets.There are distinctions, some of the more important of which are as follows * Marginal revenue and price In a perfectly competitive market price equals marginal revenue. In a monopolistic market marginal revenue is less than price. 17 * Product differentiation There is zero product differentiation in a perfectly competitive market. Every product is perfectly homogeneous and a perfect substitute for any other. With a monopoly, there is great to absolute product differentiation in the sense that there is no available substitute for a monopolized good.The monopolist is the sole supplier of the good in question. 18 A customer either buys from the monopolizing entity on its terms or does without. * Number of competitors PC markets are populated by an infinite number of buyers and sellers. Monopoly involves a single seller. 18 * Barriers to Entry Barriers to entry are factors and circumstances that prevent entry into market by would-be competitors and limit new companies from operating and expanding within the market. PC markets have free entry and exit. There are no barriers to entry, exit or competition. Monopolies have relatively high barriers to entry.The barriers must be strong enough to prevent or discourage any potential competitor from entering the market. * Elasticity of Demand The price elasticity of demand is the percentage change of demand caused by a one percent change of relative price. A successful monopoly would have a relatively inelastic demand curve. A low coefficient of elasticity is indicative of effective barriers to entry. A PC company has a perfectly elastic demand curve. The coefficient of elasticity for a perfectly competitive demand curve is infinite. * Excess Profits- Excess or positive profits are profit more than the normal expected return on investment.A PC company can make excess profits in the short term but excess profits attract competitors which can ente r the market freely and decrease prices, eventually reducing excess profits to zero. 19 A monopoly can preserve excess profits because barriers to entry prevent competitors from entering the market. 20 * Profit Maximization A PC company maximizes profits by producing such that price equals marginal costs. A monopoly maximises profits by producing where marginal revenue equals marginal costs. 21 The rules are not equivalent. The demand curve for a PC company is perfectly elastic flat.The demand curve is identical to the average revenue curve and the price line. Since the average revenue curve is constant the marginal revenue curve is also constant and equals the demand curve, Average revenue is the same as price (AR = TR/Q = P x Q/Q = P). Thus the price line is also identical to the demand curve. In sum, D = AR = MR = P. * P-Max quantity, price and profit If a monopolist obtains control of a formerly perfectly competitive industry, the monopolist would increase prices, reduce prod uction, and realise positive economic profits.22 * Supply Curve in a perfectly competitive market there is a well defined supply function with a one to one relationship between price and quantity supplied. 23 In a monopolistic market no such supply relationship exists. A monopolist cannot trace a short term supply curve because for a given price there is not a unique quantity supplied. As Pindyck and Rubenfeld note a change in demand can lead to changes in prices with no change in output, changes in output with no change in price or both. 24 Monopolies produce where marginal revenue equals marginal costs.For a specific demand curve the supply curve would be the price/quantity combination at the point where marginal revenue equals marginal cost. If the demand curve shifted the marginal revenue curve would shift as well and a new equilibrium and supply point would be established. The locus of these points would not be a supply curve in any conventional sense. 2526 The most significa nt distinction between a PC company and a monopoly is that the monopoly has a downward-sloping demand curve rather than the perceived perfectly elastic curve of the PC company.27 Practically all the variations above mentioned relate to this fact. If there is a downward-sloping demand curve then by necessity there is a distinct marginal revenue curve. The implications of this fact are best made manifest with a linear demand curve. Assume that the inverse demand curve is of the form x = a by. Then the total revenue curve is TR = ay by2 and the marginal revenue curve is thus MR = a 2by. From this several things are evident. First the marginal revenue curve has the same y intercept as the inverse demand curve.Second the slope of the marginal revenue curve is twice that of the inverse demand curve. Third the x intercept of the marginal revenue curve is half that of the inverse demand curve. What is not quite so evident is that the marginal revenue curve is below the inverse demand cur ve at all points. 27 Since all companies maximise profits by equating MR and MC it must be the case that at the profit maximizing quantity MR and MC are less than price which further implies that a monopoly produces less quantity at a higher price than if the market were perfectly competitive.The fact that a monopoly has a downward-sloping demand curve means that the relationship between total revenue and output for a monopoly is much different than that of competitive companies. 28 Total revenue equals price times quantity. A competitive company has a perfectly elastic demand curve meaning that total revenue is proportional to output. 29 Thus the total revenue curve for a competitive company is a ray with a slope equal to the market price. 29 A competitive company can sell all the output it desires at the market price. For a monopoly to increase sales it must reduce price.Thus the total revenue curve for a monopoly is a parabola that begins at the origin and reaches a maximum value then continuously decreases until total revenue is again zero. 30 Total revenue has its maximum value when the slope of the total revenue function is zero. The slope of the total revenue function is marginal revenue. So the revenue maximizing quantity and price occur when MR = 0. For example assume that the monopolys demand function is P = 50 2Q. The total revenue function would be TR = 50Q 2Q2 and marginal revenue would be 50 4Q. Setting marginal revenue equal to zero we have 1.50 4Q = 0 2. -4Q = -50 3. Q = 12. 5 So the revenue maximizing quantity for the monopoly is 12. 5 units and the revenue maximizing price is 25. A company with a monopoly does not experience price pressure from competitors, although it may experience pricing pressure from potential competition. If a company increases prices too much, then others may enter the market if they are able to provide the same good, or a substitute, at a lesser price. 31 The idea that monopolies in markets with easy entry need no t be regulated against is known as the revolution in monopoly theory.32 A monopolist can extract only one premium,clarification needed and getting into complementary markets does not pay. That is, the total profits a monopolist could earn if it sought to leverage its monopoly in one market by monopolizing a complementary market are equal to the extra profits it could earn anyway by charging more for the monopoly product itself. However, the one monopoly profit theorem is not true if customers in the monopoly good are stranded or poorly informed, or if the tied good has high fixed costs.A pure monopoly has the same economic rationality of perfectly competitive companies, i. e. to optimise a profit function given some constraints. By the assumptions of increasing marginal costs, exogenous inputs prices, and control concentrated on a single agent or entrepreneur, the optimal decision is to equate the marginal cost and marginal revenue of production.

High school diploma Essay Example for Free

High school diploma EssayI did 4 historic period in Senn High School and there were a quite a little of problems in school. Dropping out of high school is a huge retail store for many teens today. As society demands hardworking graduates with good character, the nation should require keeping teens from displace out of school and improving students statement for the future. There are many causes for wherefore teenagers drop out of school. But there are few solutions for allowing them to finish high school with high diplomas. Pregnancies, drugs, confederacy involvement and bullying play a big role in the dropout rate. How can high schools help students to earn their high school diplomas and stop dropping out of school? Many kids attend High schools that have a different culture, or way of doing things. I will always remember my years of high school. However, I feel my high school years have been the most memorable. I strongly believe that high school is the open door, into t he respire of my life.The last days of my high school career are fast approaching and I can only imagine how Ill be flavour when I step out of Senn High School for the very last time. Throughout these four years, I have felt a lot of requirements near graduating high school. I didnt think that the time to graduate would come soon enough. I came across a great interest essay that starts with the question of why smart kids are, on average, low status in the high school environment.The short answer is that being popular in that environment is a wax time job, and smart kids, even if they want to be popular, want to do other things as well. The author goes on to make quite a lot of interesting, understanding, and disturbing points about how children are brought up. What bothers me is not that the kids are kept in prisons, but that they arent told about it, and the prisons are run mostly by the person who is hold in in a prison.In my high school Spanish class we were supposed to spea k in Spanish. I dont think any of us knew Spanish well enough to make our way through this huge book. Like the rest of the class, I just study the notes. When we were given a test on the book, I noticed that the questions sounded odd. They were full of long words that our teacher wouldnt have used. Where had these questions come from? From the notes, it turned out. The teacher was using them too and we were all just pretending.

Responsive Relationships In Inclusive Relationships Children And Young People Essay

Responsive Relationships In Inclusive Relationships Children And Young People EssayThe purpose of this assignment is to give an observation of an comprehensive environment that helps baby birdren feel welcome and safe. At the same epoch this assignment gives an opinion on how to improve the infant c be settings to help children feel to a greater extent comfort able. The children at the child c atomic number 18 centre are three and three and a half years old and it may be hard for children to confide their parents at that age. The setting helps the children feel at home when they come in to the child fright centre. In the child care centre there are six theater of operationss where the children take off hold of the opportunity to symbolise in, such as the block firmament where all the childrens toys are. The orbital cavitys wee-wee different materials that are available for the children to use in roll to develop and introduce the children to different experiences such as in the book area. There are books that pose pictures of different animals and this will help the children commit different animals and even spark their interest later on in the day.ScheduleIs there outdoor time schedule (or gym time for handsome weather?)In the child care centre, the schedule reflects each childs needs. The children are restless and they need the time to hasten fresh air and physical activity. For example, the children have outdoor play twice a day and gym time when the weather is not suitable. The children have at least 2 hours of outdoor play in a day. There is a playground for the children where they can go on the slides, play in the sandbox and there are toys to play with outside. In the gym, there are scooters, mini cars and a smaller playground to play in. The gym has many materials for the children to choose from if they do not want to play with the scooters or the mini cars. There are other options for the children to choose from such as costumes and ba by dolls with strollers.Is the schedule explained in enough detail that you can understand what children are expected to do during this time period?Schedules are typically posted so that children, families and volunteers can anticipate the bordering event. For younger children the schedule is often displayed in picture form (P.55)In the child care centre, there are two schedules in the classroom. The schedule provided for the adults gives specific times such as when it is time for the children to play, eat lunch, snack and go to the washroom. For the children, the schedule is placed at eye train where they can see and it will show the time for their play, snack and lunch but with pictures for the children to understand the schedule.1b. Describe any changes, suggestions you would recommend to fall upon the schedule in the environment meet the criteria in the environmental assessment tool.Bullard (2011), states that Children should not be required to lie on their mats for long pe riods of time ( much than half an hour) when they are not asleep (p. 63). During rest time, some children are unable to sleep for a longer than thirty minutes. In my placement, some children move from their mats, or play with their blankets. To improve this transition I would have the children who are unable to sleep get together and go to the gym and play until they are tired, so that when they come back to the classroom the children are more likely to fall asleep.Transitionsargon children accustomed advance notice that an activity is changing?Giving a warning demonstrates that we have respect for children and their work. The time between the warning and the transition delivers children to bring block to the task they are engaged in and to begin planning for the next event (Bullard 2010 P.61).After the morning snack, the children are acting in the block area for at least an hour, before recall. This is from 830 to 930, before 930 the teacher will say Okay, guys, quin more minut es. When the five minutes past the teacher will purport at the clock and tell the children, okay, everyone, two more minutes. This gives the children an advance notice for the children so they do not feel rushed when the clock shows 930. When play time is over the children are more likely to clean up their material and wait for the next event on the schedule.2b) Describe any changes, suggestions you would recommend to the transitions to meet the criteria in the environmental assessment tool.In addition to wasting valuable time and increase the likelihood of behaviour problems, requiring children to wait with nothing to do is disrespectful (Bullard 2010 P. 60). In my placement, lunch time has the most waiting time. Sometimes the children will misbehave because they have nothing to do while lunch is being served. The recommendation I would call for in order to make this transition easier for the children and the teacher is singing a song as this will help take their minds off of wai ting for their food to arrive and singing is one the best way to keep a child entertained.A) Block AreaB) In the block area there are many materials used by the children every day. The materials vary from dolls, building blocks and verbal expression tools. The tuition experiences in the block area help children express how they feel using the materials in front of them. For example, when a child is expressing that they are sad, they might single out themselves and use the dolls to take their minds off of what they were upset about. The block area also encourages children to cooperate and turn back how to share because of the amount of toys that are available in the learning centre.C) Are there materials that reflect the lives of children with disabilities?Yes, in the child care centre the block area has dolls with many disabilities to give children exposure to people with special needs. They have dolls from all different backgrounds that have disabilities such as a child in a wh eelchair or an elderly person holding a cane. This helps children learn that people can be different and includes every child in the classroom. In my placement there is a child who has a mental disability that is unable to move and he is bound to a wheelchair. Having these dolls in the classroom help include him and show the children that he is not different from the other children.Are the shelves labeled so that children can easily find items and know where to put them away?Appropriate storage can help reduce clutter, saves time and make materials accessible, enhance the rotation of toys and equipment, and maximize the use of resource (Bullard, 2010 P. 99).Yes, in the child care centre the block area has many shelves that are labeled with lyric poem and pictures. This will help the children organize where they should put the material when it is time to transition to a new event. The shelves are child accessible that they are at their level to reach for the materials and it is ver y organized so that each child can find what they want without any assistance.D) In the block area, I feel that the spatial arrangement is not comprehensive for all children. There is little space for a child in a wheelchair to be include within the block area with the other children. This is not responsive or inclusive because the child with special needs is left out from the activities that the children are participating in. This can cause a problem when he wants to be able to see the other children play. Also the parents and teachers are unable to move in the block area because of the amount of children playing and the toys in the room. This is difficult for when the parents want to be involved with the childs play.E) The recommendation I would make in order for the block area to be more inclusive is to arrange the room for more space to include staff and parents. In my placement, I noticed that the amount of children and toys that are placed in the block area does not give a lo t of room for the teachers to move around or parents to see what their child is doing. If there was more space, there would be more room for children, parents and staff to be side by side and interact with each other. Another reason more room is important is because the child who is in the wheelchair is unable to join the children in the block area due to lack of space. If they expand the block area the child would be able to be included in the activities with the other children. I would push the shelves back more to give space for all the children and give room for the child with the disability to be able to move inside the block area.F) Is the environment comfy?The environment in the block area is somewhat homelike because there are pictures of the families of each child on the wall and there are living things such as plants. The child care centre provides the pictures for the children so that when they miss their parents they are able to look at the pictures in the block area. T he child care centre also allows the children to grow their own plants at the centre. This teaches the children about growing plants and gives the environment a homelike feel.Are there pale and neutral colours used for most walls and shelving?Yes, the walls in the centre are painted white and the shelves are a natural wood colour. This is important because bright colours cause too much stimulation, especially when the toys and the pictures on the wall should be the main attraction. Neutral colours allow the emphasis to be on the toys and materials in the classroom.G) In part F), I mentioned that the environment of the block area is somewhat homelike in the child care centre. This is because there is no space for the children to find a quiet spot for their own purposes. According to Bullard (2010), Solidary retreats provide children the opportunity to think and dream, engage in ceaseless concentration, regain control of emotion and unwind after intense periods of interaction. (P. 9 2). I would have a space outside of the block area for the child if he/ she wants to be alone, then they can leave the block area and sit in the space so that they are able to find their peace of mind. finisThe environment of the child care centre is homelike for children and helps the children feel comfortable in the room. The transitions between play time and recall help each child get used to the schedule. The teacher is there to assist the children through the transition through early warnings so that the children do not feel rushed when they have to clean up their materials. From my observation, the block area in the child care centre was inclusive. However, there are some recommendations that should be addressed in order to help each child feel more included and reducing the waiting time when transitioning to a new event. The recommendations I made were that they should sing songs during lunch time, expand the block area more to include a child with special needs and find a sp ace for each child in the centre to be alone if they want to. All in all, the centres environment has met with each childs needs in terms of helping them transition from different activities and make them feel comfortable in the classroom.

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Introducing Business Models

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Introducing Business ModelsA Public Private Partnership is known worldwide as an important source of spurring clannish assets in stock building and improving public assistance de endurery. As we move on with this business, it gets important to analyse objectives for PPP in visit to understand the risks and responsibilities the disposal would hit to adopt in visit to make PPPs growth.As we explore PPP we see 2 types of common reasons which ar used to explain why a reign overment pursues PPPs. The prototypal ordered of reasons are what we would adjudge as beneficial, reasons that are consistent with the moment that PPPs actually turn over. The second ordered of reasons are what we adjudge Deceptive reasons-that is, reasons that are not really consistent with the outcomes that that PPPs chiffonier deliver.BENEFICIAL REASONS FOROF prosecute PPP riskiness transfer Government getting rid of asset-based risks that is, risk directly associated with bu ilding or operating assetsWhole-of-life costing Through whole of life costing the government can achieve optimization between capital costs and operating and maintenance costs, a realistic projection of amount outlay of ownership, and a artifact of comparing competing designs on a like-with-like basisInnovation Providing wider incentives for original solutions to assist deliveryAsset utilization Developing opportunities to generate income from utilization of the asset by third parties, which whitethorn reduce the outlay that the polity would otherwise have to pay as a sole user with the outcomes that that PPPs can deliver.DECEPTIVE RESONS FOR PURSUING PPPThe main deceptive reason why some governments pursue PPPs is to access pay that would otherwise not be available. Accessing finance would not be doable ultimate by introducing a PPP. If an infrastructure source is not assured that, between user fees and government subsidies, it module be able to notice its costs, the government would unable to raise the top needed fund to build the project. The government module will not able to attract clannish finance simply by deciding to do PPP, cost recovery would need to be resolute before capital can be raisedA government is an organization that has the power to make and enforce laws for a certain territory. There are several definitions on what exactly constitutes a government. In its broadest sense, govern means the power to administrate, whether over an area of land, a set group of heap, or an association. A government is the organization that is the governing authority of a semipolitical unit. It is the system or form by which a community or other political unit is governed.Far more important to me is, that I should be loyal to what I regard as the law of my political life, which is this a belief that that country is best governed, which is least governed George Hoadly closely plurality who have live in the Pakistan think of state provision when they think of public services. Consequently, when they think of public services macrocosm removed from state provision they think of privatization probably with the involvement of multi-national capital. However, for those who lived in from the period of the Industrial Revolution until the Second World war, and for million of people crosswise the world who have lived since the war and up to the set out day, the provision of services is not exclusively a matter for the state it is a matter for the public.For people not living within our narrow ethnic constraints, delivery of services is proposed with co-operatives and mutuals. The democratic nature of co-operative structures gives people direct power over service delivery. The state, whether central or local, acts as a hostage of peoples rights to services. The state must always be prepared to act as an enabler but should only be a provider in the last resort. tending(p) our knowledge of this better way, we must continue to engage, not fr om any sense of ideological superiority, but because we know that this better way is more economically economic and will provide better service delivery which meets people postulate better than current provision.Let the people think they govern and they will be governed.William PennIt is worth acknowledging that there is some co-operative provision in Pakistan, for example there are a number of housing co-ops. It is equally worth acknowledging that there is a widerthird sector which contains various social enterprises, charities and housing associations. Some of these are in a grant funded arrangement with the state while others take a more trading approach to procurement.Co-operative solutions, particularly when they are worker-led, require the support of trade unions. It is important to get the message across that co-operation is not privatization. Since trade unions are there to protect their members, perhaps co-operation should be promoted as a structure which can help protec t their members. There is a need to make co-operative work the preferred option for workers in the service sector.Local GovernmentLocal government has played a leading role in Pakistans communities for many historic period and continues to have a key role to play. Support for co-operative values is not new to local government. Regional councils in particular funded and back up co-operative development. Pakistans local administration have an important role to play in supporting co-operative businesses working in partnership with co-operative and mutual enterprises.A wise government knows how to enforce with temper, or to conciliate with dignity, but a weak one is odious in the former, and contemptible in the latter.George GreenvilleLocal Authorities need to be partners in exploitation mutual solutions with communities. Pakistans local authorities should work in partnership with co-operative enterprises to improve social services, develop anti-poverty strategies and to provide en vironmental justice for communities. Procurement polices designed to achieve social aims and maximize the benefits for local communities will always assist successful co-operative enterprises. We should challenge the fear culture and encourage best exert. Procurement legislation needs to be looked at and all local services should be considered for co-op options.Moving to a co-operative model of service delivery would require a perform review of departmental structures within the local authorities existing political framework. We need to put in place now the support mechanism to fend for co-operative service development.There is widespread acknowledgement that the way local authorities deliver public services is changing. Privatization is happening but co-operative solutions can put people in ownership and control and enhance democracy. We should be pro-active in looking for services which are due to be externalized and have a co-operative model officious to promote. Public servi ces should be delivered according to need and any profit should be paid back into the community. We need to develop across local government, through education, a knowledge base of councillors and policy makers across all parties together with officers with expertise ready to champion the co-op model.PlanningPlanning is an deal that cuts across policy areas. We should see this as an opportunity to develop a co-operative approach to some of the greatest challenges in 21st century Pakistan. Planning, above all else, is active co-ordination of provision and co-operative models, particularly secondary co-operative models, provide an ideal solution in this context.There are clear opportunities to develop co-op models to meet the needs of caller to co-ordinate its approach to service delivery. For example, an industrial and provident society model could be used to create separate legal entities which would be responsible for linking up the shared responsibilities of the Health Service and local government and be democratically accountable to the communities they serve. This means extending co-operation beyond co-operation with a small c to creating structures which are richly accountable. It is important that co-operators take an active involvement in local planning and use it to engage with community groups.As a Movement which is heavily twisting in retail and property, we are well placed to provide socially responsible solutions to the problem of town marrow squash development in Pakistan. The co-operative model would provide an ideal structure for town centre partnerships. Not just co-operation with a small c between those involved in supporting town centre development but actual business models which could be used to develop town centers in a way that communities would want.We should seek to establish a consensus that co-operation is the oversight position. When planning new developments it is important to include play areas, community shops and centers w here appropriate. Co-ops should seek to take advantage of community benefit clauses. The community benefit aspect should be seen as a way to develop new co-op businesses.Too bad that all the people who know how to run the country are brisk driving taxicabs and cutting hairGeorge BurnsHealthAs co-operators, we view health share much in the same way we see every reveal that confronts people, their families and communities we believe that power should lie with the people. Communities have to take responsibility for health provision and we believe co-operative and mutual models of healthcare provide them with the best opportunity to do this.The highly emotive campaigns which have arisen from proposals to re-design the delivery of acute and specialist services underlines the importance placed on the NHS by communities and the sensitivity with which politicians need to deal with the publication of health. The co-operative model could be applied to hospitals.With the aging population, social care was highlighted is the type of service where the caring, sharing Co-op model should be an obvious option.We believe that co-operative models would disclose greater integration and would suggest that the evidence of co-operative healthcare provision overseas supports this contention. A key challenge for the provision of health services is to connect them with people the users, employees, patients and the wider community. It is essential to engender a type of ownership that enables stakeholders to feel that these services are run on their behalf and not for someone elses vested interests.We must address the issue of elections to Health Boards which would create an element of community involvement and accountability in health delivery.Consideration should be given to the increasingly challenging subject of care provision in Pakistan. This is an area which requires partnership between the NHS and local government. It is also an area which may have significant potential for co-operative development and is an area being prioritised by Co-operative Development Pakistan.We require action on pharmacy delivery and occupational health looking at co-operative rather than hole-and-corner(a) solutions.One rule of overcoming the difficult informational requirements of the allocation models described above is by enacting a requirement that anyone wanting to purchase cigarettes must first purchase a cigarette card. The card, which could be based on the same magnetic strip (or computer chip) technology used for credit cards and ATM cards, would be issued to any legal-aged smoker who cute to buy cigarettes and would have to be presented by the smoker each time she purchased cigarettes. A reaction of many readers may well be that our proposal gives to a fault much information to government agencies, therefore creating a Big Brother problem. We sympathize with that stir, but we believe the problem is not as significant as it may appear initially. First, it is not clear that the sort of information that the cigarette card system would generate is any different from the sort of information that the American public routinely provides to government and undercover agencies. In other words, it may be too late to worry about the sort of privacy concern that this proposal raises.Jon D. Hanson and Kyle D. Logue quotesEducationPublic services are more concerned about the delivery of education as a service rather than curricular issues. However, it is worth saying that the issues of educational structures and curriculum are connected. The Co-operative Movement has an excellent record in education. When, in the past, co-operatives have delivered education, delivery and content have supported each other. We hope that development regarding co-operative naturalises will lead to a return to this link.The work being done at present in Pakistan is to be highly commended and we hope this will achieve its objective of bringing co-operative ideas to every sch ool in Pakistan. However, there is a long way to go. Co-operation offers solutions to many of the challenges of public service provision but co-operative solutions have been ignored because civil servants and politicians have no background knowledge in co-operation. Schooling system, almost without exception, completely ignores co-ops business models. Most teachers are still unaware of co-ops and therefore the ignorance perpetuates itself.We recognize that education sits quite firmly within local government and that most people in Pakistan would care it to remain so. However, we would argue that in the longer term it is not just the curriculum which should become co-operative but also the structures. We need to continue to discuss how we can further develop co-operative education in schools and to develop the ownership of the curriculum so that it is owned and managed by the communities it serves.We should collate and build on best practice already in schools, such as the the work of unions, bringing new savings models into schools. It is essential to promote the co-operative model at school level and equally important to engage with the curricular drivers in Pakistan such as Learning and Teaching Pakistan.For centuries it was never discovered that education was a function of the State, and the State never attempted to educate. But when modern absolutism arose, it laid claim to everything on behalf of the sovereign power.When the revolutionary theory of government began to prevail, and Church and State found that they were educating for diametrical ends and in a contradictory spirit, it became necessary to remove children entirely from the influence of religion.Lord ActonIts time to admit that public education operates like a think economy, a bureaucratic system in which everybodys role is spelled out in advance and there are few incentives for incentives for innovation and productivity. Its no surprise that our school system doesnt improve It more resemble s the communist economy than our own market economy.Albert ShankerPPP approaches should not be seen as a magic bullet and may be best suited to specific circumstances. As in all cases of public procurement, corruption remains a risk that must be cautiously managed. As PPP projects are relatively new, lack of familiarity with the procedures may open up new corruption risks. On the other hand, greater emphasis on the delivery and measurement of outcomes in PPP procurement may introduce greater levels of transparency and accountability. The main advantages and disadvantages of PPP are summarized belowADVANTAGESMakes use of private sector skills, modern technology, and efficiencyForces the public sector to focus on outputs and benefits (rather than inputs) from the startBrings in private capital and makes projects affordableRisks are shared by the different partiesBudgetary certaintyThe public sector only pays when services are deliveredCapital at risk is an effective incentive to make private companies perform.DISADVANTAGESPPP implies a loss of management control by the public sector and therefore may be politically unacceptableAbility, skills, and sufficient cleverness of the public sector to adopt thePPP approach and create a good incentive and regulatory environmentLack of private sector expertiseDoes not achieve absolute risk transferProcurement can be lengthy and costlyLong-term relatively inflexible structuresPUBLIC dish up DELIVRY PROCESS

Fibre optics

Fibre opticsACKNOWLEDGEMENTHistory of all great works in to witness that no great work was forever d ace without either spry or passive support of a person surrounding and ones shutting quarters. Thus is it not hard to conclude how active assistance from senior could positively impact the execution of a project .I am high gearly thankful to our learned faculty for her active guidance passim the completion of project.Last but not least, I would as well as want to ext revoke my appreciation to those who could not be mentioned here but have well played their role to inspire me behind the certain.History-Daniel Colladon first described this thinly fountain or light pipe in an 1842 article authorize On the coefficient of reflections of a ray of light inside a parabolic liquid stream. This particular illustration comes from a later article by Colladon, in 1884.The principle that makes eccentric optics possible, was first demonstrated by Daniel Colladon and Jacques Babinet in Par is in the early 1840s.John Tyndall wrote about the property of quantity internal reflection in an introductory book about the nature of light in 1870When the light passes from furrow into piddle, the refracted ray is bent towards the perpendicular When the ray passes from water to air it is bent from the perpendicular If the fee which the ray in water encloses with the perpendicular to the surface be greater than 48 degrees, the ray will not throw in the towel the water at all it will be totally reflected at the surface. The shift which marks the limit where total reflection begins is called the limiting pitch of the forte. For water this angle is 4827, for flint glass it is 3841, while for diamond it is 2342.The groundbreaking event happened in around 1965, Charles K. Kao and George A. Hockham of the British company quantity Telephones and Cables (STC) were the first to promote the idea that the fading in visual vul moveized graphemes could be reduced below 20 decibels per kilometer (dB/km), allowing types to be a practical medium for communicating. They proposed that the attenuation in vulcanized fibers available at the time was ca utilize by impurities, which could be removed, rather than fundamental physical effects such as scattering. They correctly and consistently theorized the light-loss properties for visual fiber, and pointed out the right material to manufacture such fibers silica glass with high purity. This discovery led to Kao being awarded the Nobel Prize in physics in 2009.NASA used fiber optics in the television cameras that were sent to the moon. At the time its use in the cameras was classified confidential and only those with the right shelter clearance or those accompanied by someone with the right security cleargonnce were permitted to handle the cameras.In 1991, the emerging field of photonic crystals led to the development of photonic-crystal fiber which guides light by means of diffraction from a periodic organize, ra ther than total internal reflection. The first photonic crystal fibers became commercially available in 2000. Photonic crystal fibers can be designed to carry higher power than conventional fiber, and their wavelength dependent properties can be manipulated to improve their performance in certain applications.PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING OF FIBRE OPTICS- voice of the modified chemical vapor dethronement (inside) processStandard optic fibers atomic take 18 made by first constructing a large-diameter preform, with a c befully controlled refractive index profile, and then pulling the preform to form the long, thin optical fiber. The preform is commonly made by three chemical vapor deposition methods inside vapor deposition, external vapor deposition, and vapor axial deposition.With inside vapor deposition, the preform starts as a hollow glass tube just about 40centimeters (16in) long, which is displace horizontally and rotated slowly on a lathe. Gases such as silicon tetrachloride (SiCl4) or germanium tetrachloride (GeCl4) argon injected with oxygen in the end of the tube. The gases argon then heated by means of an external hydrogen burner, bringing the temperature of the gas up to 1900K (1600C, 3000F), where the tetrachlorides react with oxygen to produce silica or germania (germanium dioxide) particles. When the reply conditions argon chosen to allow this reaction to occur in the gas phase throughout the tube volume, in contrast to earlier techniques where the reaction occurred only on the glass surface, this technique is called modified chemical vapor deposition.The oxide particles then agglomerate to form large particle chains, which subsequently deposit on the walls of the tube as soot. The deposition is due to the large difference in temperature between the gas core and the wall causing the gas to push the particles outwards (this is known as thermophoresis). The torch is then traversed up and down the length of the tube to deposit the material evenly. After the torch has r individuallyed the end of the tube, it is then brought sanction to the beginning of the tube and the deposited particles are then melted to form a solid layer. This process is repeated until a sufficient amount of material has been deposited. For each layer the composition can be modified by varying the gas composition, resulting in precise control of the finished fibers optical properties.In outside vapor deposition or vapor axial deposition, the glass is formed by flame hydrolysis, a reaction in which silicon tetrachloride and germanium tetrachloride are oxidized by reaction with water (H2O) in an oxyhydrogen flame. In outside vapor deposition the glass is deposited onto a solid rod, which is removed before come along processing. In vapor axial deposition, a short seed rod is used, and a porous preform, whose length is not limited by the size of the man-made lake rod, is built up on its end. The porous preform is consolidated into a transparent, solid pre form by heating to about 1800K (1500C, 2800F).The preform, however constructed, is then placed in a device known as a drawing tower, where the preform tip is heated and the optic fiber is pulled out as a string. By measuring the resultant fiber width, the tension on the fiber can be controlled to maintain the fiber thickness.Principle of operation-An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide (nonconducting waveguide) that contains light along its axis, by the process of total internal reflection. The fiber consists of a core surrounded by a cladding layer, both of which are made of dielectric materials. To confine the optical signal in the core, the refractive index of the core must be greater than that of the cladding. The boundary between the core and cladding may either be abrupt, in step-index fiber, or gradual, in graded-index fiber.Index of deviationThe index of refraction is a way of measuring the speed of light in a material. Light leads fastest in a vacuum, suc h as outer space. The effective speed of light in a vacuum is about 300,000 kilometres (186 thousand miles) per blink of an eye. Index of refraction is calculated by dividing the speed of light in a vacuum by the speed of light in some opposite medium. The index of refraction of a vacuum is therefore 1, by definition. The typical hold dear for the cladding of an optical fiber is 1.46. The core value is typically 1.48. The larger the index of refraction, the slower light travels in that medium. From this information, a good rule of ruffle is that signal using optical fiber for communication will travel at around 200 million meters per second. Or to put it another way, to travel 1000 kilometers in fiber, the signal will take 5 milliseconds to propagate. Thus a phone call carried by fiber between Sydney and New York, a 12000 kilometer distance, means that there is an absolute minimum delay of 60 milliseconds (or around 1/16th of a second) between when one caller speaks to when the other hears. (Of course the fiber in this case will probably travel a longer route, and there will be additional delays due to communication equipment switching and the process of encoding and decoding the voice onto the fiber).Total internal reflectionWhen light traveling in a dense medium hits a boundary at a steep angle (larger than the critical angle for the boundary), the light will be completely reflected. This effect is used in optical fibers to confine light in the core. Light travels along the fiber bouncing back and forth off of the boundary. Because the light must strike the boundary with an angle greater than the critical angle, only light that enters the fiber within a certain range of angles can travel down the fiber without leaking out. This range of angles is called the credence cone of the fiber. The size of this acceptance cone is a function of the refractive index difference between the fibers core and cladding.In simpler terms, there is a supreme angle from th e fiber axis at which light may enter the fiber so that it will propagate, or travel, in the core of the fiber. The sine of this maximum angle is the numerical aperture (NA) of the fiber. Fiber with a larger NA requires less precision to splice and work with than fiber with a smaller NA. Single-mode fiber has a small NA.TYPES OF FIBRE OPTICS-Multi-mode fiber-Fibers which support legion(predicate) propagation paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode fibers (MMF). Multi-mode fibers generally have a larger core diameter, and are used for short-distance communication links and for applications where high power must be transmitted.Fiber with large core diameter may be analyzed by geometrical optics. Such fiber is called multi-mode fiber. from the electromagnetic analysis . In a step-index multi-mode fiber, rays of light are guided along the fiber core by total internal reflection. Rays that meet the core-cladding boundary at a high angle , greater than the critical angle for thi s boundary, are completely reflected. The critical angle (minimum angle for total internal reflection) is determined by the difference in index of refraction between the core and cladding materials. Rays that meet the boundary at a low angle are refracted from the core into the cladding, and do not convey light and hence information along the fiber. The critical angle determines the acceptance angle of the fiber, often reported as a numerical aperture. A high numerical aperture allows light to propagate down the fiber in rays both close to the axis and at various angles, allowing efficient coupling of light into the fiber. However, this high numerical aperture increases the amount of dispersion as rays at polar angles have different path lengths and therefore take different times to traverse the fiber.Single-mode fiber-Those which can only support a single mode are called single-mode fibers (SMF). Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 550meters (1,800 ft).The structure of a typical single-mode fiber.Core 8m diameterCladding 125m dia.Buffer 250m dia.Jacket 400m dia.Fiber with a core diameter less than about ten times the wavelength of the propagating light cannot be modeled using geometric optics. Instead, it must be analyzed as an electromagnetic structure, by solution of Maxwells equations as reduced to the electromagnetic wave equation. The electromagnetic analysis may also be required to understand behaviors such as speckle that occur when coherent light propagates in multi-mode fiber. As an optical waveguide, the fiber supports one or to a greater extent confined transverse modes by which light can propagate along the fiber. Fiber supporting only one mode is called single-mode or mono-mode fiber.The most common type of single-mode fiber has a core diameter of 8-10 micrometers and is designed for use in the near infrared. The mode structure depends on the wavelength of the light used, so that this fiber actually supports a sma ll number of additional modes at visible wavelengths. Multi-mode fiber, by comparison, is manufactured with core diameters as small as 50 micrometers and as large as hundreds of micrometers. The normalized frequency V for this fiber should be less than the first zero of the Bessel function J0 (approximately 2.405).Special-purpose fiberSome special-purpose optical fiber is constructed with a non-cylindrical core and/or cladding layer, usually with an elliptical or rectangular cross-section. These include polarization-maintaining fiber and fiber designed to suppress whispering gallery mode propagation.Photonic-crystal fiber is made with a regular pattern of index variation (often in the form of cylindrical holes that withdraw along the length of the fiber). Such fiber uses diffraction effects instead of or in addition to total internal reflection, to confine light to the fibers core. The properties of the fiber can be tailored to a wide variety of applications.APPLICATIONS OF FIBRE O PTICS- optical fiber communicationOptical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and networking because it is flexible and can be bundled as cables. It is especially advantageous for long-distance communications, because light propagates through the fiber with little attenuation compared to electrical cables. This allows long distances to be spanned with few repeaters.Additionally, the per-channel light signals propagating in the fiber have been modulated at rates as high as 111 gigabits per second by NTT, although 10 or 40Gb/s is typical in deployed systems. Each fiber can carry many independent channels, each using a different wavelength of light (wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)). The net data rate (data rate without overhead bytes) per fiber is the per-channel data rate reduced by the FEC overhead, multiplied by the number of channels.For short distance applications, such as creating a network within an office building, fiber-optic cabling can be used to save space in cable ducts. This is because a single fiber can often carry much more data than many electrical cables, such as 4 pair Cat-5 Ethernet cabling. Fiber is also immune to electrical interference there is no cross-talk between signals in different cables and no pickup of environmental noise. Non-armored fiber cables do not conduct electricity, which makes fiber a good solution for protecting communications equipment located in high voltage environments such as power generation facilities, or metal communication structures prone to lightning strikes.They can also be used in environments where explosive fumes are present, without jeopardy of ignition. Wiretapping is more difficult compared to electrical connections, and there are concentric dual core fibers that are said to be tap-proof.Fiber optic sensors -Fibers have many uses in remote sleuthing. In some applications, the sensor is itself an optical fiber. In other cases, fiber is used to connect a non-fiberoptic sensor to a touchstone system. Depending on the application, fiber may be used because of its small size, or the fact that no electrical power is needed at the remote location, or because many sensors can be multiplexed along the length of a fiber by using different wavelengths of light for each sensor, or by sensing the time delay as light passes along the fiber through each sensor. Time delay can be determined using a device such as an optical time-domain reflectometer.Optical fibers can be used as sensors to measure strain, temperature, pressure and other quantities by modifying a fiber so that the quantity to be measured modulates the intensity, phase, polarization, wavelength or transit time of light in the fiber. Sensors that vary the intensity of light are the simplest, since only a simple source and detector are required. A particularly useful feature of such fiber optic sensors is that they can, if required, provide distributed sensing over distances of up to one meter.Extrinsic fiber optic sensors use an optical fiber cable, normally a multi-mode one, to transmit modulated light from either a non-fiber optical sensor, or an electronic sensor connected to an optical transmitter. A major benefit of extrinsic sensors is their ability to reach places which are otherwise inaccessible. An example is the step of temperature inside aircraft jet engines by using a fiber to transmit radiation into a radiation pyrometer located outside the engine. Extrinsic sensors can also be used in the same way to measure the internal temperature of electrical transformers, where the extreme electromagnetic fields present make other mensuration techniques impossible. Extrinsic sensors are used to measure vibration, rotation, displacement, velocity, acceleration, torque, and twisting.Other uses of optical fibers-Light reflected from optical fiber illuminates exhibited modelFibers are widely used in luster applications. They are used as light guides in medical and other applications w here bright light needs to be shone on a target without a clear line-of-sight path. In some buildings, optical fibers are used to route sunlight from the roof to other parts of the building . Optical fiber gleam is also used for decorative applications, including signs, art, and artificial Christmas trees. Swarovski boutiques use optical fibers to illuminate their crystal showcases from many different angles while only employing one light source. Optical fiber is an intrinsic part of the light-transmitting concrete building product, LiTraCon.Optical fiber is also used in imaging optics. A coherent bundle of fibers is used, sometimes along with lenses, for a long, thin imaging device called an endoscope, which is used to view objects through a small hole. Medical endoscopes are used for minimally trespassing(a) exploratory or surgical procedures (endoscopy). Industrial endoscopes used for inspecting anything hard to reach, such as jet engine interiors.In spectroscopy, optical fiber bundles are used to transmit light from a spectrometer to a substance which cannot be placed inside the spectrometer itself, in order to analyze its composition. A spectrometer analyzes substances by bouncing light off of and through them. By using fibers, a spectrometer can be used to study objects that are in any case large to fit inside, or gasses, or reactions which occur in pressure vessels.An optical fiber doped with certain rare earth elements such as erbium can be used as the gain medium of a laser or optical amplifier. Rare-earth doped optical fibers can be used to provide signal amplification by splicing a short section of doped fiber into a regular (undoped) optical fiber line. The doped fiber is optically pumped with a second laser wavelength that is coupled into the line in addition to the signal wave. Both wavelengths of light are transmitted through the doped fiber, which transfers energy from the second pump wavelength to the signal wave. The process that causes the amplification is stimulated emission.Optical fibers doped with a wavelength shifter are used to collect scintillation light in physics experimentsOptical fiber can be used to supply a low take of power (around one watt) to electronics situated in a difficult electrical environment. Examples of this are electronics in high-powered antenna elements and measurement devices used in high voltage transmission equipment.USES-Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communications, which permitstransmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) thanother forms of communications.Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them withless loss, and they are also immune to electromagnetic interference.Fibers are also used for illumination, and are masked in bundles so they canbe used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in tight spaces. Speciallydesigned fibers are used for a variety of other applications, including sensorsand fiber lasers. Light is kept in the core of the optical fiber by total internal reflection. This causes the fiber to act as a waveguide.ADVANTAGES OF FIBRE OPTICSWe knowthe electrical signals travel pretty well in metal cables but nothing compares to light inoptical fibre. If we have to list the most big(p) advantages of using light as acarrier and optical fibres as transmission channels these may be some of themGreat bandwidth available to transmit information. You can easily use many GHz ofbandwidth limitations being mostly related to electronics in the transmitters and thereceivers.Low attenuation of the light travelling through optical fibres. Light can travel manykilometres in an optical fibre with little attenuation and without usingamplifiers/repeaters or having them spaced a lot more than amplifiers in coaxial cablesfor example.Immunity to interferences. Optical fibres are made of glass not of any metal whichmakes them immune to any kind of electromagnetic interference. electric isolation . Since they are not metallic they dont establish electrical contactbetween emitter and receiver nor create any capacitance along the length of the cable.REFERENCES-http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiberhttp//www.educypedia.be/electronics/cablingfibers.htmhttp//www.protelturkey.com/teknik/fo/IntroToFOMeas.pdf

Sexual Harassment in the Workplace Essay -- Sexual Harassment Essays

Sexual torture is an important issue in every business if odd unattended it could cost companies millions in damages. In 1980 the Supreme judicature ruled that sexual harassment was a violation of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. From 1978 to 1980, sexual harassment cases brought against companies cost them $189 million. This number rose to $267 million from 1985-1987. Damages are just measured only by numbers. Sexual harassment can cause defame to a comp whatsoevers image, reputation, customers, as well as their revenue.In earlier years, women use to think in order to get along in the workplace they must go with the flow of whatever may happen in the office. Co-workers often looked negatively upon people who stuck up for themselves. Mens behaviors at work had always been authorized without question. When women were sexually harassed they had no where to turn.Today, the EEOC receives more than 16,000 sexual harassment complaints in a year. This is hardly the amount of situat ions that happen. 95% of sexual harassment incidents are left field unreported We can non follow in our government?s footsteps down this road. Our so-called Congress is the worse place to work in dealing with sexual harassment. Until 1994, they were not under compliance with any laws for the protection of workers in the workplace. Even the regulations of 1994 did not provide strict enforcement so the problem remains. Statistics have shown that in the Supreme Court one-third of the people has been a victim of some form of sexual harassment. A member of Congress harassed one in nine of these persons 42% of women and 15% of men in the federal government have reported sexual harassment. Do you think our government does a great job of screen up things?It is estimated that nine out of ten women will be victims of sexual advances at work. The courts are making it easier to hold a company liable for any sexual harassment behavior that occurs within the workplace. The employer do es not even need to know that the sexual harassment is taking place for an employee to file a gibe and win. It is almost impossible to find a ?solution? or ?magic key? that will end the problem. There is no guarantee that anything will baffle sexual harassment from happening. There are only suggestions that might help in depleting the problem.Developing an effective policy against sexual haras... ... McGraw-Hill, 1998.Mcafee, R. Bruce. ?Workplace Harassment employees vs. customers.? (Mar.-Apr. 1999) n.pag. Online. Internet. 5 decline 2000. Available web http//www.findarticles.com/cf_o/m1038/2_42/54370819/print.jhtml.McShane, Steven L., and Mary Ann Von Glinow. Organizational Behavior. Boston Irwin McGraw-Hill, 2000.Miramontes, David J. How To Deal With Sexual Harassment. San Diego Network Communications, 1983.Roberts, Barry S. and Richard A. Mann. ?Sexual Harassment in the Workplace A Primer.? n.pag. On-line. Internet. 5 Dec 2000. Available WWW http//www.uakron.edu/lawrev/ robert1.html.?Same Sex Harassment.? n.pag. On-line. Internet. 5 Dec 2000. Available WWW http//www.employer-employee.com/sexhar1.html.?Same Sex Harassment.? n.pag. On-line. Internet. 5 Dec 2000. Available WWW http//www.employer-employee.com/sexhar4.html.?Sexual Harassment in the Workplace.? n.pag. On-line. Internet. 5 Dec 2000. Available WWW http//www.de.psu.edu/harass/analysis/work.html.Sexual Harassment in the Workplace? n.pag. On-line. Internet. 5 Dec 2000. Avaliable WWWhttp//www.flabar.org/newflabar/consumerservices/General/Consumer.Pam/37PAMPH.html.

A Deeper Insight of “The Cask of Amontillado” Essays -- essays researc

A Deeper Insight of The Cask of AmontilladoIt is Edgar Allan Poes intense use of symbolism and irony throughout The Cask of Amontillado that establishes the short tier as a candidate worthy of analysis. The skillful use of these devices are utilized by the author to create this horrific and suspenseful short story. banter and symbolism in The Cask of Amontillado greatly effect the outcome of Fortunatos well being. The Cask of Amontillado should be regarded as a slice of a plague story, which revolves around the theme of revenge and pride (Levine 90). Poes story is a case of premeditated murder. The reader becomes quickly aware of the fact that Montressor is not a reliable narrator, and that he has a tendency to hold grudges and exaggerate terribly, as he refers to the thousand of injuries that he has suffered at the hands of Fortunato (Womack NP). The story relates a wretched revenge made even more horrible by the fact that the vengeance is being taken when no real offense had b een given. Montressor is one who volition stop at nothing to get the revenge that he deems himself and his family worthy of, and another whos pride will ultimately be the catalyst for his death (Benton 215). raillery is a manner of expression through which words or events convey a reality different from and even opposite to appearance or apprehension (Juvante NP). The use of such devices in this sto...