Enzyme Catalase Labs

Varibles that affect Enzyme Catalysis Reaction Rates Introduction Molecules are constantly moving in our bodies and in nature. When molecules move fast enough they collide into one another, allowing chemical reactions to occur. Factors such as temperature and concentrations can either help increase or decrease these reactions. (Jubenville. ) Enzymes are known as catalyst because they are able to speed up reaction rates without being destroyed or altered. They are able to encourage chemical reactions by decreasing the energy of activation.The main function of enzyme catalase is to convert hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in our bodies into oxygen and water. This can be visually seen when hydrogen peroxide is put on a wound and the peroxide bubbles. Enzymes can also be found in plant cells and fungi. (Huston. ) In this experiment we test the many variables that can change the rate of this reaction such as temperature, concentration levels of enzyme catalase and pH values. We are able to track these changes using an O2 Gas Sensor. (Enzymes. ) It is predicted that the rate of reaction will increase with temperature, pH levels and concentration. MethodsThree test tubes were each filled with 5 mL of 3% hydrogen peroxide and 5 mL of water. 10 drops of enzymes suspension was then added to the Naigene chamber for each observation. Test tubes one, two and three were added to the Naigene chamber respectively. The O2 Gas Sensor was placed on top of the Naigene chamber. The Naigene chamber was swirled for 60 seconds while the O2 Gas Sensor recorded the oxygen being released during the reaction. The results were recorded. To study the effects of enzyme concentration on rate of reaction, four test tubes were each filled with 5 mL of 3% hydrogen peroxide and 5 mL of water.For each test observation 5, 10, 15 and 20 drops of enzyme catalase were placed in the Naigene chamber. The four test tubes were then added respectively. The Naigene chamber was swirled for 60 seconds while the O2 Ga s Sensor recorded the oxygen being released during the reaction. To test the effect of temperature on reaction rate, three test tubes were each filled with 5 mL of 3% hydrogen peroxide and 5 mL of water. For each observation 10 drops of enzyme catalase was added to the Naigene chamber. Test tube one was placed in ice (temperature of 0-5 C). Test tube wo was placed in room temperature (20-25 C). Test tube three was placed in warm water (30-35 C). Each test tube was held in this environment for five minutes. The Naigene chamber was swirled for 60 seconds while the O2 Gas Sensor recorded the oxygen being released during the reaction. To measure the effect of pH on catalase activity, three test tubes were each filled with 5 mL of 3% hydrogen peroxide and 5 mL of the appropriate pH buffer. Test tube one was filled with 5 mL of pH 4. Test tube two was filled with 5 mL of pH 7. Test tube three was filled with 5 mL of pH 10.Ten drops of enzyme catalase was added to the Naigene chamber and t est tube one, two and three were added respectively. The O2 Gas Sensor was placed on top of the Naigene chamber and was swirled for 60 seconds. The O2 Gas Sensor then recorded the oxygen being released during the reaction. To measure the effect of different substrare concentrations on catalase reactions, three test tubes were used and labeled one, two and three. Test tube one was filled with 3 mL of 3% hydrogen peroxide and 7 mL of water. Test tube two was filled with 5 mL of 3% hydrogen peroxide and 5 mL of water.Test tube three was filled with 7 mL of 3% hydrogen peroxide and 3 mL of water. 10 drops of catalase suspension was placed in the Naigene bottle for each observation. Test tube one, two and three were then added to the Naigene chamber respectively. The O2 Gas Sensor was placed on top of the Naigene chamber and was swirled for 60 seconds. The O2 Gas Sensor then recorded the oxygen being released during the reaction. Results Figure 1 Test Tube Number| Rate of Initial Reactio n (m)| 1| 0. 085282| 2| 0. 074574| 3| 0. 09223| Figure 1: The average reaction rate of the enzyme concentration.Figure 2 Test Tube| Drops of enzyme suspension| Rate of Initial Reaction (m)| 1| 5| 0. 060459| 2| 10| 0. 071033| 3| 15| 0. 0966| 4| 20| 0. 15003| Figure 2: Changes in reaction rate due to the enzyme concentration. Figure 3 Test Tube| Temperature measured| Rate of Initial Reaction (m)| 1| 0-5 C| 0. 038694| 2| 20-25 C| 0. 084487| 3| 30-35 C| 0. 065194| Figure 3: Changes in reaction rate due to the effects of different temperatures. Figure 4 Test Tube| pH level| Rate of Initial Reaction (m)| 1| 4| 0. 013519| 2| 7| 0. 045141| 3| 10| 0. 049314|Figure 4: Changes in reaction rate due to the pH level of the solution. Figure 5 Test Tube| Amount of H2O2| Amount of H2O| Rate of Initial Reaction (m)| 1| 3| 7| 0. 027672| 2| 5| 5| 0. 09168| 3| 7| 3| 0. 1087| Figure 5: Changes in reaction rate due to different ratios of 3% hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and water (H2O) In figure 1, we can see that the figures for each test were relatively the same. This is because the amount and type of chemicals used in each test were the same. Figure two shows the initial rate of reaction increasing as the amount of enzyme suspension increases.This evidence demonstrates that the enzyme suspension allowed the reaction to occur more rapidly. Figure 3 demonstrates how temperature can play a role in rate of reaction. Our figures show that showed that rate of reaction was at a peak when in medium temperatures. Various levels of pH also played a role in rate of reaction. Figure 4 demonstrates that the higher the pH level, the faster reaction rate was. Figure 5 demonstrates that different ratios of H2O2 and H2O can alter the rate of reaction. The higher amounts of H2O2 allowed higher reaction rates then the lower concentrated amounts.Discussion Enzymes are responsible for almost all chemical reactions that take place. They are made up of proteins and are considered biocatalysts. (Jubenville. ) Biocatalysts can be described as when enzymes are used as catalysts to cause chemical reactions. (Novasep. ) Enzymes are known as catalyst because they are able to speed up reaction rates without being destroyed or altered. They are able to encourage chemical reactions by decreasing the energy of activation. (Huston. ) Enzymes attract substrates to their surface allowing chemical reactions to occur.Every enzyme haves reactive sites which allow very specific chemical reactions. The shape of the reactive site on the enzyme and the shape of the reactive site on the substrate must completely match in order for them to attract to one another. (Jubenville. ) Enzyme catalase can be found in various places of our bodies and nature. The main function of enzyme catalase is to convert hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in our bodies into oxygen and water. This can be visually seen when hydrogen peroxide is put on a wound and the peroxide bubbles. (Huston. ) It can also be found in nature in plants and fungi.These molecules are constantly moving. When moving fast enough they collide into one another, allowing chemical reactions to occur. Factors such as temperature and concentrations can either help decrease or increase these reactions. Concentration of enzyme catalase for example, plays a huge role of how much oxygen will be broken down. Concentrations of enzyme catalase can also increase chances of a chemical reaction occurring because there are more molecules available to do the job. The higher concentration of enzyme catalase used, the more oxygen will be released during reaction.The temperatures of the environment in which these reactions take place also play a crucial role on the reaction. Heat for example, speeds up the movement of molecules allowing more of a chance for them to collide and cause a chemical reaction. (Jubenville. ) pH factors also change reaction rates. pH stands for power of hydrogen and measures the concentration on hydrogen ions in a solution. (Hyperphy sics. ) The higher the concentration, the more hydrogen ions available to be broken down by enzymes. The more hydrogen or hydrogen eroxide in a solution, the more oxygen being released during the reaction. It was expected that reaction rates would increase with higher concentrations of H2O2, pH levels, temperatures and ratios. This was all proven true through our observations of our experiment.Works Cited â€Å"Biocatalysis: Definition of Biocatalysis in Novasep Glossary. † Biocatalysis: Definition of Biocatalysis in Novasep Glossary. Novasep, 2010. Web. 1 Oct. 2012. <http://www. novasep. com/misc/glossary. asp? defId=49>. (Novasep. ) â€Å"Enzymes. † Enzymes. Tuberose, n. d. Web. 27 Sept. 2012. <http://www. uberose. com/Enzymes. html>. (Enzymes. ) â€Å"Frequently Asked Questions A » Learn A » Houston Enzymes. † Frequently Asked Questions A » Learn A » Houston Enzymes. Huston Enzymes, 2010. Web. 1 Oct. 2012. <http://www. houston-enzymes. com/learn/faq. php>. (Huston. ) Jubenville, Robert B. , and Richard G. Thomas. General Biology Laboratory Manual. Third ed. Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt, 2008. Print. (Jubenville. ) â€Å"PH. † As a Measure of Acid and Base Properties. Hyperphysics, n. d. Web. 5 Oct. 2012. <http://hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/hbase/chemical/ph. html>. (Hyperphysics. )

Learning Team Reflection Essay

Training Plan Implementing an effective training plan is necessary in order for a company to be successful. A structured training plan for Landslide Limousines will ensure employees are aware of the company’s objectives and goals. According to Bradley Stonefield, the training plan for Landslide Limousine will entail three key components a set of needs assessment, types of training methods, and training evaluations strategies. Training offers reliable information and skill to an employee about the company’s prospects and procedures. Properly trained employees contribute to a company’s achievement of goals and ultimate success. Each team member chose topics to evaluate and research effectively and apply there relevance towards the team discussion. Our first communication with Bradley Stonefield informed Atwood and Allen that he wishes to hire 25 employees and have a location in Austin, Texas. The second conversation with Mr. Stonefield led to information regarding the annual net revenue of negative $50,000 in his first year and a growth prediction of 5% over a couple of years. Most recently, Atwood and Allen has learned that Mr. Stonefield predicts that his annual employee turnover rate will be 10%, and his concern on cost for the training plan. The needs assessment constitutes several aspects revolving around the daily operations, individual employees, environment, organizational and demographical information of a business. Operational Analysis Designing an operational plan for the Landslide Limousine service determines the efficiency of various aspects within the small business operation. The  process usually begins with a period of observations, the group of individuals performing the analysis watches and takes detailed notes on a day-to-day operation of the limousine business in the initial stage. Logical reasoning methods assist in compiling the information used in the process with various mathematical models and statistical analysis. Operational analysis aims to determine whether each area of the organization is contributing effectively to overall performance and the furthering of company strategy. Using the operational analysis to ensure that the business Mr. Bradley wants to start should align appropriately with the company’s strategic plan. By examining the current performance of the operational portion of an investment, and then measuring that against an established set of performance parameters and goals, operational analysis within the business can reveal the company’s strengths and weaknesses as well as any opportunities for improvement with the individuals he may want to hire for future employment. With all the detailed information our team gathered in order to best serve and provide the right information for this business, by conducting an operational analysis, this should seek to examine a number of functional areas within the business; including strategic planning, customer results, and business results, financial performance, and quality of innovation. Now, the objective process should principally be to reassess existing processes and determine how objectives improve, how costs minimized and even, on occasion, eliminating a task. Operational analysis can be a relatively simple process for the company and meaningful in assisting a new business venture. Through a few manageable steps in the process, Landslide Limousine needs to assess their productivity and possibly reallocate investments to ensure activities within the company are in line with the small business company’s strategy. Studies prove that establishing a schedule benefits the completion of the process. This process may outline the timeline and resources necessary for completing the operational analysis. Outline strategies and methods accordingly and adhere to them during the process. Collect information to provide key insights into actual performance in comparison with strategic planning and performance goals. Complete an analysis gap to identify and report performance, cost and benefits based on an analysis of the actual performance data. Demographic Analysis According to Bradley Stonefield, the demographic analysis that needs to be address is a specific population to describe the small business and its characteristics, such as income level, background checks, driving records, location and salaries. A demographic analysis is useful in a business plan, to describe the population where the business is located. Income level data is a good indicator of residents’ spending power. Income positively correlates with retail expenditures in many product categories. During market evaluation, retailers look at the median or average household income, and seek a minimum number of households within a certain income range prior to establishing a business or setting prices. Another common practice is to analyze the distribution of household incomes. Different businesses may avoid extremely high or low-income areas. Some specialty fashion stores target incomes above $100,000. Background checks often requested by employers for job candidates during e mployment screening, especially on candidates seeking a position that require high security or trust. Traditionally, background checks administered by a government agency for a nominal fee, but maybe administered by private companies. Background checks can be expensive depending on the information requested. Results of a background check typically include past employment verification, credit history, Driving history for a small business aspect and criminal history. Mr. Stonefield is interested in locating a limousine company within the Austin, TX area. A small business is unlikely to dominate any particular market in a city. However, strategic use of location-based marketing can make you a viral hit in your suburb or street and this may be all it takes to double the turnover in the limousine business. Location-based services can provide the company with information about how many people check in for a certain area or business, which has checked in most often and how many people have used an offer of this kind of service. This kind of information can be very useful in assessing the success of the company’s location-based marketing program. The average wage for a Limousine Driver is $12.85 per hour in the state of Texas in 2011. People in this job generally do not have more than 20 years’ experience. Pay for this job rises steadily for more experienced workers, but goes down significantly for the few employees with more than 20 years’ experience. Limo drivers have limited career advancement  opportunities. Some acquire supervisory or management positions, while others train new drivers or receive preferred shifts. Moving into a dispatching or managerial role is another choice for experienced limo drivers. Organizational Analysis Organizational Analysis for this company is a means of measuring how the small business will do and how to identify ways to improve the company in order to ensure success into the future of the company. A strategic way in preparing this aspect is to use the SWOT analysis. This stands for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. These factors make up the bulk of the way the study and be analyzed and can give a in great details a pretty good indication of how Landslide Limousine will do and how it could be expected to do move forward in the future in making profits. The results of the analysis will help Mr. Stonefield be able to make good decisions and improve any efficiencies while without making any major changes. Strengths within Landslide services are usually the starting point for this company. Internal/external factors should include a stable workforce, methods and simple strategies are a way to mainstream the total aspects of all local business within the area is which this is a key aspect. Weaknesses can come from all different locations and can be widespread. This may include aging facilities, possible inexperienced/unprofessional drivers, outdated equipment, purchasing of quality vehicles fleets, price/packages, and areas of specialties. Opportunities should include new market creations, consumer based locations, overhead, and debts. Now, threats could possibly take on another aspect within the business. These can range just from local communities services to government products/services to the rules and regulations. Individual Analysis Certain ideals manifest in behaviors of individual members and affect group dynamics. Task functions include behaviors such as identifying tasks, coordinating, clarifying and summarizing. Individual Analysis based off different levels and/or services provided by the limousine service help to decipher if business needs are met. This type of analysis can be based off a wide stream of studies in business. This specific analysis can have more disadvantages than advantages needed in order to find ways to being a  business. Learning how to work effectively in a group situation is the key to success in many professions in business. Learning key ways to get the business from crawl, walk, run phase is another way employees have the advantage of learning how the aspects of business work in the community. Environmental Analysis This analysis scan can help assist in understanding the broader context in which individuals are operating in. By investing time, identifying key trends and environmental factors to obtain information for small business within the regions in which we want to base our business and all the studies that are included. Some small businesses and organizations frequently choose to review the external factors in the process, but it is important to consider the internal environment factors. These may include looking at the organization’s internal capacities and resources, and projecting how to change in the future to meet the organization objectives. Another useful component to the analysis phase is to survey external customers in the local area and ensure all aspects of the locations are covered. Challenges observed and/or anticipated, or missed opportunities, and even basis such as how others described your individual work to get the process started may have a short-time or long-term effect. Environmental analysis uses a series of ranks and assessments in evaluating employee performance, customer satisfaction, and overhead coat are all similar factors during the first phase of the analysis. Training Methods Appropriate training is liable to have a positive or negative affect on important issues in business. How a company conducts, training is a critical decision that every business has to make consciously. All features involved in effective training should be considered, such as, time, cost, training environment, and training cost. The delivery of the training is pertinent. If the delivery of the information is confusing to employees, the training does not occur properly and is a waste of time, resources, and capital (Ongoing Training: A Method for Success, 2012). Various approaches to training are utilized and implemented. Types of Media Considering the impression Landslide Limousines anticipates on making, Atwood  and Allen Consulting recommends technology-based training. Technology-based learning may prove to be beneficial. Basic methods of learning through technology include interactive videos utilizing a computer in combination with a digital video (DVD). Web-based training programs or internet-streamed videos such as â€Å"YouTube† videos are increasing, popular tools among training methods. The aforementioned method is valuable in illustrating scenarios that the trainer would like to emphasize. These methods are conducive within a large group of people. Learning Principles When opting to use technology-based learning, companies must ensure accessibility for employees. Learning principles, considered laws of learning, are discovered, tested, and benefit practical situations (Naval education and Training, 2010). The trainer must possess the capability of applying the principles while instructing. Most importantly, the trainer needs to be clear on the objectives of the training, and relate it to the work environment. There are three types of learners: visual, hearing and hands-on. Atwood and Allen Consulting recommend that Landslide Limousine combine the training methods and perform more interactive learning experiences that will accommodate the three types of learners. Using what the military medicine has called for years â€Å"See one, do one, teach one† (Naval education and Training, 2010). The trainer will teach the skill so the employees can see it, then the employees will demonstrate their knowledge displaying their proficiency, finally the employee will teach a new employee. Those that teach, learn. Trainers will be inclined to become familiar with the material, recall it accurately, and apply it effectively. This method is cost effective in the sense that when there is a time one employee must carry out the tasks of another, therefore causing no interruptions in business. This method works best for companies that are just beginning. Training for learning skills or fact The required training conducted is for skill and fact. The training enhances knowledge of skills that enforce relevant facts, in reference to training. Effectiveness of Methods The effectiveness of the methods of instructions can be verified by how the employee perform their duties, by employee’s questionnaires and/or testing,  and by comments done by the trainers themselves (Naval Education and Training, 2010). The effectiveness of these methods displayed through the performance of the employees. Training Evaluation Strategies Evaluation on training is of utmost importance. Here is where a business learns of training that works versus training that is of no use to the organization. In order to evaluate specific training, addressing certain questions alleviate concerns of risk in that course of training. Potential questions are: Did the trainees learn a specific skill, knowledge or performance? Did change occur and was it related to the training? Are the changes positively reflecting in productivity and to achieving organization goals? Will these changes occur with a different set of trainees using the same training criteria? (Chapter 8, 2013) Typically, training is a trial and error system. What may work for one individual may not necessarily pertain to another type of learner. As mentioned previously, people learn in different manners. Some need visual aesthetics to increase their ability to comprehend the training. While others’ need a more tactile experience and participate in the training. This is not an entirely new concept and has developed over the last decade to include the use of technology to enhance learning. The same can be said for training and evaluation strategies. The idea behind training evaluation is to recognize the criteria of the training are met within the company. Using pretests to determine a suitable new hire reassures current employees that the individual grasps the goals and concepts of the business. An example of a pretest is as simple as an application, a resume or orientation. All of this information allows management to decipher an individual based on experiences. Once training is underway, management will monitor and observe the associates reactions and the trainer’s methods of approach. This segment is extremely important considering the trainer. If the trainer does not connect with the class or leads them astray and off topic, the training becomes worthless and consumes the organization’s time and money. The trainer’s obligation shall remain cost effective to the company and stay on task to complete the training in a time efficient manner. Aside from management monitoring and observing, feedback is equally important, and can  come from employees, supervisors, managers, and customers. Collecting feedback for an organization is conducted a number of ways. Suggestion boxes placed randomly around the business provide anonymous suggestions from individuals employed in the organization or from customers who believe change is necessary. Feedback is also collected verbally either in a group of employees or individual basis. Sending surveys to clients containing pertinent information to the limousine service allows them to feel connected to the business and builds trust. The implementation of the feedback is the most important aspect to changing the current operational standards of the business. Manager’s need to rise above the concept of â€Å"if it’s not broken, don’t fix it.† Business evolution is constant and technology increases daily allowing change to happen more frequently, and not because â€Å"it’s broken,† but because a new element has become known and can be a useful tool in training. References Email from Traci: Performance Management Plan. (2015). Retrieved from University of Phoenix: https://ecampus.phoenix.edu/secure/aapd/Materials/IP/curriculum/sb/HRM531/assignments/week5/intro.asp Naval education and Training. (2010). Personal Qualification Standards for Master Training Specialist. NAVEDTRA 43100-7C Ch. 1. Retrieved from Naval education and Training website Ongoing Training: A Method for Success. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.lctmag.com/operations/article/41017/ongoing-training-a-method-for-success http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes533041.htm http://education-portal.com/articles/Salary_and_Career_Info_for_a_Limo_Driver.html http://www.studymode.com/essays/Individual-Analysis-Of-Working-In-a-712116.html

Launching the New Ship of State

CHAPTER [ 10 ] Launching the New Ship of State, 1789–1800 PART I: Reviewing the Chapter A. Checklist of Learning Objectives After mastering this chapter, you should be able to: [ 1 ]. State why George Washington was pivotal to inaugurating the new federal government. [ 2 ]. Describe the methods and policies Alexander Hamilton used to put the federal government on a sound financial footing. [ 3 ]. Explain how the conflict between Hamilton and Jefferson led to the emergence of the first political parties. [ 4 ].Describe the polarizing effects of the French Revolution on American foreign and domestic policy and politics from 1790 to 1800. [ 5 ]. Explain the rationale for Washington’s neutrality policies, including the conciliatory Jay’s Treaty and why the treaty provoked Jeffersonian outrage. [ 6 ]. Describe the causes of the undeclared war with France, and explain Adams’s decision to seek peace rather than declare war. [ 7 ]. Describe the poisonous political atmosphere that produced the Alien and Sedition Acts and the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions. Related essay: What Led to the Rise of Political Parties in 1790[ 8 ]. Describe the contrasting membership and principles of the Hamiltonian Federalists and the Jeffersonian Republicans, and how they laid the foundations of the American political party system. B. Glossary To build your social science vocabulary, familiarize yourself with the following terms. [ 1 ]. census? An official count of population; in the United States, the federal census occurs every ten years. â€Å". .  . the first official census of 1790 recorded almost 4 million people. † [ 2 ]. public debt? The money owed by a government to individual or institutional creditors, also called the national debt. . .  . the public debt, with interest heavily in arrears, was mountainous. † [ 3 ]. cabinet? The body of official advisers to the head of a government; in the United States, it consists of the heads of the major executive departments as designated by Congress. â€Å"The Constitution does not mentio n a cabinet. .  . .† [ 4 ]. circuit court? A court that hears cases in several designated locations rather than a single place; originally, in the United States, the higher courts of appeals were all circuit courts, and are still designated as such even though they no longer migrate. The act organized . .  . federal district and circuit courts. .  . .† [ 5 ]. fiscal? Concerning public finances—expenditures and revenues. â€Å"His plan was to shape the fiscal policies of the administration. .  . .† [ 6 ]. assumption? In finance, the appropriation or taking on of monetary obligations not originally one’s own. â€Å"The secretary made a convincing case for ‘assumption. ’ † [ 7 ]. excise? A tax on the manufacture, sale, or consumption of certain products. â€Å"Hamilton . .  . secured from Congress an excise tax on a few domestic items, notably whiskey. † [ 8 ]. stock?The shares of capital ownership gained from invest ing in a corporate enterprise; the term also refers to the certificates representing such shares. â€Å"Stock was thrown open to public sale. † [ 9 ]. medium of exchange? Any item, metallic, paper, or otherwise, used as money. â€Å"They regarded [whiskey] as a . .  . medium of exchange. † [ 10 ]. despotism? Arbitrary or tyrannical rule. â€Å"The American people, loving liberty and deploring despotism, cheered. † [ 11 ]. impress? To force people or property into public service without choice; to conscript. â€Å"They . .  . impressed scores of seamen into service on British vessels.   . .† [ 12 ]. assimilation? The merging of diverse cultures or peoples into one; especially, the merging of a smaller or minority community into a larger one. â€Å"The drastic new law violated the traditional American policy of open-door hospitality and speedy assimilation. † [ 13 ]. witch-hunt? An investigation carried on with much publicity, supposedly to unc over dangerous activity but actually intended to weaken the political opposition by presuming guilt from the outset. â€Å"Anti-French hysteria played directly into the hands of witch-hunting conservatives. † [ 14 ]. compact?An agreement or covenant between states to perform some legal act. â€Å"Both Jefferson and Madison stressed the compact theory. .  . .† [ 15 ]. nullification? In American politics, the assertion that a state may legally invalidate a federal act deemed inconsistent with its rights or sovereignty. â€Å"[The] resolutions concluded that . .  . ‘nullification’ was the ‘rightful remedy. ’ † PART II: Checking Your Progress A. True-False Where the statement is true, circle T; where it is false, circle F. [ 1 ]. TFThe primary force threatening American national security and unity in the 1790s were the international wars set off by the French Revolution. 2 ]. TFThe passage of the first ten amendments to the Constitution demonstrated the Federalist determination to develop a powerful central government even if it threatened minority rights. [ 3 ]. TFHamilton’s basic purpose in all his financial measures was to strengthen the federal government by building up a larger national debt. [ 4 ]. TFA political deal between Jefferson and Hamilton involved obtaining Virginia’s support for assumption of state debts in exchange for locating the District of Columbia along the Potomac River by Virginia. [ 5 ].TFHamilton financed his large national debt by revenues from tariffs and excise taxes on products such as whiskey. [ 6 ]. TFIn the battle over the Bank of the United States, Jefferson favored a loose construction of the Constitution, and Hamilton favored a strict construction. [ 7 ]. TFThe first political rebellion against the new United States government was by frontier whiskey distillers who hated Hamilton’s excise tax on alcohol. [ 8 ]. TFThe first American political parties grew mai nly out of the debate over Hamilton’s fiscal policies and U. S. foreign policy toward Europe. [ 9 ].TFJefferson and his Republican Party followers turned against the French Revolution when it turned radically violent in the Reign of Terror. [ 10 ]. TFPresident Washington believed that America was so powerful that it could afford to stay neutral in the great revolutionary wars between Britain and France. [ 11 ]. TFJohn Jay’s unpopular treaty with Britain stirred outrage among many Americans and fueled the rise of Jefferson’s Republican Party. [ 12 ]. TFAdams decided to seek a negotiated peace with France in order to unite his Federalist party and enhance his own popularity with the public. [ 13 ].TFThe Alien Laws were a reasonable Federalist attempt to limit uncontrolled immigration into the United States and protect dangerous French revolutionaries from weakening American national security. [ 14 ]. TFJeffersonian Republicans believed that the common people were not to be trusted and had to be led by those who were wealthier and better educated. [ 15 ]. TFThe Jeffersonian Republicans generally sympathized with Britain in foreign policy, while the Hamiltonian Federalists sympathized with France and the French Revolution. B. Multiple Choice Select the best answer and circle the corresponding letter. 1 ]. A key addition to the new federal government that had been demanded by many critics of the Constitution and others in the ratifying states was a. a cabinet to advise the president. [ b ]. a written bill of rights to guarantee liberty. [ c ]. a supreme court. [ d ]. federal assumption of state debts. [ e ]. a federal district where the capital would be located. [ 2 ]. The influential Founder and member of Congress who personally wrote the Bill of Rights was [ a ]. George Washington. [ b ]. Thomas Jefferson. [ c ]. John Marshall. [ d ]. Alexander Hamilton. [ e ]. James Madison. [ 3 ].The Bill of Rights is the name given to provisions whose actu al legal form consists of [ a ]. an executive proclamation of President George Washington. [ b ]. Article II, Section 3 of the U. S. Constitution. [ c ]. a set of rulings issued by the Supreme Court. [ d ]. the first ten amendments to the Constitution of the United States. [ e ]. the common law rights inherited from the English Magna Carta. [ 4 ]. The Ninth and Tenth Amendments partly reversed the federalist momentum of the Constitution by declaring that [ a ]. the federal government had no power to restrict the action of local governments. b ]. the powers of the presidency did not extend to foreign policy. [ c ]. all rights not mentioned in the federal Constitution were retained by the states or by the people themselves. [ d ]. the Supreme Court had no power to rule in cases affecting property rights. [ e ]. the states themselves were not bound by the guarantees in the bill of rights.[ 5 ]. Hamilton’s first financial policies were intended to [ a ]. finance the new governmen t through the sale of western lands. [ b ]. fund the national debt and to have the federal government assume the debts owed by the states. [ c ]. epudiate the debts accumulated by the government of the Articles of Confederation. [ d ]. insure that low federal taxes would spur economic growth. [ e ]. guarantee that the dollar would become a sound and respected international currency. [ 6 ]. The deep disagreement between Hamilton and Jefferson over the proposed Bank of the United States was over whether [ a ]. the Constitution granted the federal government the power to establish such a bank. [ b ]. it would be economically wise to create a bank-guaranteed national currency. [ c ]. the bank should be under the control of the federal government or the states. d ]. such a Bank violated the Bill of Rights. [ e ]. the Bank should be a private institution or an agency of the federal government.[ 7 ]. The first American political parties developed primarily because of [ a ]. the sectional d ivision over slavery. [ b ]. the Founders’ belief that organized political opposition was a necessary part of good government. [ c ]. the antifederalists’ continuing hostility to the legitimacy of the new federal Constitution. [ d ]. patriotic opposition to foreign intervention in American domestic affairs. [ e ]. he opposition of Thomas Jefferson and his followers to Hamilton’s financial policies and enhancement of federal government power. [ 8 ]. The Whiskey Rebellion proved to be most significant in the long run because it [ a ]. showed that the tariff was a more effective producer of revenue than the excise tax. [ b ]. showed that the new federal government would use force if necessary to uphold its authority. [ c ]. demonstrated that the American military could suppress a powerful domestic rebellion. [ d ]. showed the strength of continuing antifederalist hostility to the new constitutional government. e ]. showed that Americans would not tolerate federal t axation of their alcohol, tobacco, and firearms.[ 9 ]. Regarding the French Revolution, most Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans believed that [ a ]. even the extreme violence of the Reign of Terror was regrettable but necessary. [ b ]. the overthrow of the king was necessary, but the Reign of Terror went much too far. [ c ]. the Revolution should be supported by American military aid if necessary. [ d ]. the French Revolution represented a complete distortion of American Revolutionary ideals of liberty. [ e ]. ts political goals were valid but its atheistic attack on Christianity was unjustified.[ 10 ]. President Washington’s foreign policy rested on the firm conviction that [ a ]. there should be an end to European colonialism in the Americas. [ b ]. the United States could enhance its power by mediating between warring Britain and France. [ c ]. America needed to adhere firmly to its Revolutionary alliance with France. [ d ]. America ought to enter the French-British war o nly if its own republican ideals were at stake. [ e ]. the United States was too militarily weak and political disunited to become involved in European wars. 11 ]. In the 1790s, the powerful Miami Indians led by Little Turtle battled with the U. S. Army for control of [ a ]. Lake Erie and Lake Huron. [ b ]. the Ohio territory. [ c ]. Kentucky. [ d ]. hunting rights west of the Appalachians. [ e ]. Florida.[ 12 ]. George Washington’s successor, John Adams, was politically crippled by [ a ]. Washington’s refusal to give him his whole-hearted endorsement. [ b ]. the political hostility directed at his assertive wife, Abigail Adams. [ c ]. the attacks and plots by enemies within his own Federalist party, including Hamilton. [ d ]. is ignorance and weakness in managing foreign and military affairs. [ e ]. his support for the unpopular Alien and Sedition Acts. [ 13 ]. The United States became involved in an undeclared war with France in 1797 because of [ a ]. fierce American opposition to the concessions of Jay’s Treaty. [ b ]. American anger at attempted French bribery of American diplomats in the XYZ Affair. [ c ]. French interference with American shipping and freedom of the seas. [ d ]. President Adams’s sympathy with Britain and hostility to Revolutionary France. [ e ]. France’s refusal to sell New Orleans and Louisiana.[  14 ]. Thomas Jefferson and the Republican Party essentially believed that the whole future of American society rested on an essential foundation of [ a ]. wealthy planters and merchants. [ b ]. international trade and westward expansion. [ c ]. free, white, educated, small landowning farmers. [ d ]. evangelical Protestants and learned scientists and technicians. [ e ]. a political coalition of whites and African Americans. [ 15 ]. The Federalists essentially believed that [ a ]. most governmental power should be retained by the states or by the people themselves. [ b ]. he federal government should provide no special aid to private business. [ c ]. the common people could, if educated, participate in government affairs. [ d ]. the United States should have a powerful central government controlled by the wealthy and well educated. [ e ]. the United States should isolate itself from Europe and turn toward westward expansion. C. Identification Supply the correct identification for each numbered description.[ 1 ]. __________The body of advisers to the president, not mentioned in the Constitution, that George Washington established as an important part of the new federal government [ 2 ]. _________The first ten amendments to the United States Constitution that protected individual liberties [ 3 ]. __________The cabinet office in Washington’s administration headed by a brilliant young West Indian immigrant who distrusted the people [ 4 ]. __________Alexander Hamilton’s policy of paying off all federal bonds at face value in order to strengthen the national credit [ 5 ]. _____ _____Hamilton’s policy of having the federal government pay the financial obligations of the states [ 6 ]. _________Federally chartered financial institution set up by Alexander Hamilton and vehemently opposed by Thomas Jefferson [ 7 ]. __________Political organizations, not envisioned in the Constitution, and considered dangerous to national unity by most of the Founders [ 8 ]. __________Political and social upheaval supported by most Americans during its moderate beginnings in 1789, but the cause of bitter divisions after it took a radical turn in 1792[ 9 ]. __________Declaration by President Washington in 1793 that announced America’s policy with respect to the French Revolutionary wars between Britain and France [ 10 ]. _________Treaty following Miami Indians’ defeat in the Battle of Fallen Timbers that ceded Ohio to the United States but gave Indians limited sovereignty [ 11 ]. __________International agreement, signed in 1794, whose terms favoring Britain outraged Jeffersonian Republicans [ 12 ]. __________Scandal in which three French secret agents attempted to bribe U. S. diplomats, outraging the American public and causing the undeclared war with France [ 13 ]. __________Law passed by Federalists during the undeclared French war that made it a criminal offense to criticize or defame government officials, including the president [ 14 ]. _________The peace treaty courageously signed by President John Adams that ended the undeclared war with France as well as the official French-American alliance[ 15 ]. __________The doctrine, proclaimed in the Thomas Jefferson’s Kentucky resolution, that a state can block a federal law it considers unconstitutional D. Matching People, Places, and Events Match the person, place, or event in the left column with the proper description in the right column by inserting the correct letter on the blank line. [ 1 ]. ___John Adams [ 2 ]. ___Alexander Hamilton [ 3 ]. ___Thomas Jefferson [ 4 ]. ___Jame s Madison [ 5 ]. ___Supreme Court [ 6 ]. __Funding and assumption [ 7 ]. ___Bank of the United States [ 8 ]. ___Whiskey Rebellion [ 9 ]. ___Federalists [ 10 ]. ___Republicans [ 11 ]. ___XYZ [ 12 ]. ___Battle of Fallen Timbers [ 13 ]. ___Alien and Sedition Acts [ 14 ]. ___Bill of Rights [ 15 ]. ___Washington’s Farewell Address| [ a ]. A protest by poor western farmers that was firmly suppressed by Washington and Hamilton’s army [ b ]. Body organized by the Judiciary Act of 1789 and first headed by John Jay [ c ]. Brilliant administrator and financial wizard whose career was plagued by doubts about his character and his beliefs concerning popular government [ d ].Political party that believed in the common people, no government aid for business, and a pro-French foreign policy [ e ]. The second president of the United States, whose Federalist enemies and political weaknesses undermined his administration [ f ]. Skillful politician-scholar who drafted the Bill of Rights a nd moved it through the First Congress [ g ]. Institution established by Hamilton to create a stable currency and bitterly opposed by states’ rights advocates [ h ]. Hamilton’s aggressive financial policies of paying off all federal bonds and taking on all state debts [ i ].Harsh and probably unconstitutional laws aimed at radical immigrants and Jeffersonian writers [ j ]. General Anthony Wayne’s victory over the Miami Indians that brought Ohio territory under American control [ k ]. Message telling America that it should avoid unnecessary foreign entanglements—a reflection of the foreign policy of its author [ l ]. Secret code names for three French agents who attempted to extract bribes from American diplomats in 1797 [ m ]. Washington’s secretary of state and the organizer of a political party opposed to Hamilton’s policies [ n ].Ten constitutional amendments designed to protect American liberties [ o ]. Political party that believed in a strong government run by the wealthy, government aid to business, and a pro-British foreign policy| E. Putting Things in Order Put the following events in correct order by numbering them from 1 to 5. [ 1 ]. __________Revolutionary turmoil in France causes the U. S. president to urge Americans to stay out of foreign quarrels. [ 2 ]. __________Envoys sent to make peace in France are insulted by bribe demands from three mysterious French agents. [ 3 ]. __________First ten amendments to the Constitution are adopted. [ 4 ]. _________Western farmers revolt against a Hamiltonian tax and are harshly suppressed. [ 5 ]. __________Jefferson organizes a political party in opposition to Hamilton’s financial policies. F. Matching Cause and Effect Match the historical cause in the left column with the proper effect in the right column by writing the correct letter on the blank line. Cause| Effect|[ 1 ]. ___The need to gain support of wealthy groups for the federal government [ 2 ]. ___Pass age of the Bill of Rights [ 3 ]. ___The need for federal revenues to finance Hamilton’s ambitious policies [ 4 ]. ___Hamilton’s excise tax on western farmers’ products [ 5 ]. __Clashes between Hamilton and Jefferson over fiscal policy and foreign affairs [ 6 ]. ___The French Revolution [ 7 ]. ___The danger of war with Britain [ 8 ]. ___Jay’s Treaty [ 9 ]. ___The XYZ Affair [ 10 ]. ___The Federalist fear of radical French immigrants| [ a ]. Led to the formation of the first two American political parties [ b ]. Caused the Whiskey Rebellion [ c ]. Led Hamilton to promote the fiscal policies of funding and assumption [ d ]. Guaranteed basic liberties and indicated some swing away from Federalist centralizing [ e ]. Led to imposition of the first tariff in 1789 and the excise tax on whiskey in 1791 [ f ].Aroused Jeffersonian Republican outrage at the Washington administration’s pro-British policies [ g ]. Created bitter divisions in America between ant i-Revolution Federalists and pro-Revolution Republicans [ h ]. Caused an undeclared war with France [ i ]. Led Washington to support Jay’s Treaty [ j ]. Caused passage of the Alien Acts| G. Developing Historical Skills Reading for Main Idea and Supporting Details Any historical generalization must be backed up by supporting details and historical facts. For example, the text states that â€Å"the key figure in the new government was smooth-faced Alexander Hamilton †¦ (p. 202). This generalization is then supported by details and facts showing Hamilton’s importance, such as his policy of funding and assumption, his customs and excise taxes, and his establishment of the Bank of the United States. List at least two supporting details or facts that support each of the following general assertions in the text. [ 1 ]. â€Å"President Washington’s far-visioned policy of neutrality was sorely tried by the British† (p. 211).[ 2 ]. â€Å"True to Washingtonâ €™s policy of steering clear of war at all costs, [President Adams] tried again to reach an agreement with the French.   . † (p. 215). [ 3 ]. â€Å"Exulting Federalists had meanwhile capitalized on the anti-French frenzy to drive through Congress in 1798 a sheaf of laws designed to muffle or minimalize their Jeffersonian foes† (p. 217). [ 4 ]. â€Å"Resentful Jeffersonians naturally refused to take the Alien and Sedition Laws lying down† (p. 218). [ 5 ]. â€Å"As the presidential contest of 1800 approached, the differences between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans were sharply etched† (p. 219). [ a ]. Indicate two clear differences between the parties. PART III: Applying What You Have Learned [ 1 ].What were the most important steps that George Washington took to establish the authority and prestige of the new federal government under the Constitution? [ 2 ]. Explain the purpose and significance of the Bill of Rights. Did these Ten Amendments si gnificantly weaken the authority of the federal government, or actually enhance it? [ 3 ]. What were Hamilton’s basic economic and political goals, and how did he attempt to achieve them? [ 4 ]. What were the philosophical and political disagreements between Hamilton and Jefferson that led to the creation of the first American political parties? 5 ]. What were the basic goals of Washington’s and Adams’s foreign policies, and how successful were they in achieving them? [ 6 ]. How did divisions over foreign policy, especially the French Revolution, poison American politics and threaten the fledgling nation’s unity in the 1790s? [ 7 ]. In foreign policy, the Federalists believed that the United States needed to build a powerful national state to gain equality with the great powers of Europe, while the Republicans believed the country should isolate itself from Europe and turn toward the West.What were the strengths and weaknesses of each policy, and why was the Republicans’ view generally favored by most Americans in the 1800s? [ 8 ]. Although Federalists and Republicans engaged in extremely bitter political struggles during this period, they both retained their commitment to the American experiment, and in 1800, power was peacefully handed from Federalists to Republicans. What shared beliefs and experiences enabled them to keep the nation together, despite their deep disagreements? Was there ever a serious danger that the new federal government could have collapsed in civil war?

Amount of life insurance to purchase Research Paper

Amount of life insurance to purchase - Research Paper Example 4. Estimate future income needs. 5. Anticipate special needs. This review follows these steps to a life insurance value. I am a 30-year-old man with a wife, same age, and two children, ages 2 and 4. I enjoy a good job paying $50,000 per year, and my wife earns $30,000. Our net take home pay is about $40,000 after all deductions. If I should die early, I want my wife to be able to stay at home and parent the children full time. We have managed to save $25,000 cash in checking and savings accounts. We have a portfolio of mutual funds, $48,000, securities, $10,000, IRAs, $6,000, and a 401K with $6,000. Our total liquid assets are $95,000. Currently, I have three times earnings as a life insurance benefit at work and a $10,000 pension death benefit for a total in force life insurance of $160,000. Upon my death, my wife would have liquid assets of $255,000. My death would cost $7,500 in funeral expenses, $5,000 deductible for medical insurance, $22,000 to clear our installment debts and a bout $3,000 in probate costs. These costs total $37,500; so the liquid assets decrease to $217,500. Insurance must replace all of our income for my wife to stay home. An after death adjustment period of two years costs about 150% of normal earnings for a total of $120,000. The children will be dependent for another 20 years.

Invention of printing press Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Invention of printing press - Essay Example The most common form of printing technology is offset lithography that consists of separate towers for every color of ink for printing. Others are gravure printing dependent on the small depressions on the printing plate surface, pad printing, screen printing, and relief printing. The invention of the printing press depended on already available printing technologies that were in use in various regions, such as ink, paper, and block printing invention that was quite common in China, before moving out to revolutionize Europe through Gutenberg works. Industrial Printing Presses Printing presses have evolved enormously over time, shifting from manual to mechanical structures which are less tedious, easier to produce, and with much reduced chances of injuries. Since ancient times, the transformations from wooden to metal built devices are evident, changing the face of printing from Egyptian wooden block printing, all the way to lithography, offset printing, 19th century hot stamping type setting, phototypesetting, to modern 3D printing and digital press. Stanhope printing press invented the first book press using cast iron, followed by Columbian press, which was a drift from Gutenberg print press, even if they employed most of the features and operation procedures from previous Gutenberg’s work (utexas.edu, n.d). All these former industrial press have been serving as the foundations of the succeeding printing presses in the modern society. Mechanized printing press. The difference that arises between the press and Gutenberg’s are the speed of press to make an impression on the paper. While Gutenberg print press compositors put type together by hand to assemble about 2000 characters per... The increase in print works allowed the spread of Christianity across the globe, which was one major practice that preceded European settlement in different continents. Bible translation into native languages was possible, enhancing spread of the gospel to different communities in their backyards. According to Eisenstein, â€Å"between the invention of the printing press and 1520, one hundred and fifty six Latin edition of the Bible had been published, together with seventeen German translation† (1979, p. 330). People had to learn to read and write, to read the word been spread, and acquire timely information and knowledge for their benefit. The number of people who attended church teachings reduced, since the word was more available to everyone, and as the result many could criticize some religious doctrines, creating conflicts among Christian religious denominations.How Printing Press Changed CommunicationCommunication comes differently to convey a message to the society. To day you find people using signs languages, either in body or pictorial forms to mean something. No longer is the human presence important as the agent of message delivery, but the message could be printed out and authorized to clarify and assure its origin to the sender. The culture of public communication has been influenced by the changing printing press technologies, such that it goes beyond providing learning, reasoning, and meaning of the message, to ensure people easier and reliable access of information, and its control when need be.

Education and Social Mobility Aspects in Dickens's Nicholas Nickelby Essay

Education and Social Mobility Aspects in Dickens's Nicholas Nickelby - Essay Example Dickens obviously was happy that his attack on the kind of schoolmasters of the time typified by Squeers had hit its mark, and here we have an instance of an author who has found social authority. After the success of Pickwick Papers, Dickens was secure in the knowledge that he could become an established writer, but that he wanted to become a novelist was decided at the time of Nicholas Nickleby, as Chesterton so eloquently points out: 'It must be remembered that before this issue of Nicholas Nickleby his work, successful as it was, had not been such as to dedicate him seriously or irrevocably to the writing of novels. He had already written three books; and at least two of them are classed among the novels under his name..... the Sketches by Boz, The Pickwick Papers, and Oliver Twist......Had he continued along this line all his books might very well have been note-books......We might have lost all Dickens's novels; we might have lost altogether Dickens the novelist....All his books might have been Sketches by Boz. But he did turn away from this, and the turning-point is Nicholas Nickleby'. (Chesterton, 1911) Thus, Nicholas Nickleby became the ... struggle he had to make to reach eminence as a writer, his work also became a voice that decried all that was ill with education and the issues involving social mobility during his time, and from his public activities in both these areas, we can see that he realises that power and authority, and wields it consciously in his writing. As Cairns says of Dickens and his contemporaries in his work Figures of Finance Capitalism: Writing, Class, and Capital in the Age of Dickens : 'Professional novelists became not only providers of relatively lucrative cultural products, but also voices of great social authority, and representatives of that middle-class wisdom and success ..... The novel became a locus of middle-class symbolic power....'(Cain, 2003) 2.1 Personal Background To understand Dickens's treatment of the issues involving education and social mobility in Victorian society, one needs to understand the influences on him at various periods of his life, and the environment which made him what he was. Born to a genteel family lineage, Dickens had an early encounter with poverty, and simultaneous fall in social status. In 1824, when barely twelve, he was taken away from school, separated from his family and packed off to labour in a North London shoe-dye factory as a consequence of his father's financial incompetence. Even though he could escape the squalor within a year owing to a windfall inheritance, the experience he went through during this time was to become a life-defining moment for him. The trials he went through at this factory had a profoundly psychological effect on him: 'In the entire district there was not a single boy whom the sensitive Charles could have accepted as a playmate. His own room was a miserable garret overlooking a damp, malodorous court.

Legal Memorandum - Jane's Asylum Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Legal Memorandum - Jane's Asylum - Essay Example She expressed her desire to seek asylum in the US, so that she could stay with her maternal uncle, who resides in California. She was also keen that her maternal uncle should become her legal guardian. In the usual course, Asylum has to be applied for, within a year of arrival in the US. Under extraordinary circumstances this condition may be relaxed. Such applications are to be submitted in Form I – 589, Application for Asylum and for Withholding of Removal. Thereafter, the Asylum Officer or Immigration Judge will determine if the applicant is a refugee1. On occasion, Asylum Officers interview a parent or trusted adult, so as to confirm guardianship information. However, the presence of such a trusted adult or witness is not mandatory, in this process3. Although, a minor applicant may be unable to demonstrate a guardianship arrangement or parental knowledge and consent; this does has no bearing on the grant of asylum. In addition, the trusted adult, in this case Jane’s uncle, could provide information, regarding her claim, if she finds it difficult to do so, on account of her tender age4. Whilst deposing before the Asylum Officer or Immigration Judge, caution will have to be exercised, in order to ensure that there is no misrepresentation of facts. This is because, Section 212(a)(6)(C) of the Immigration and Nationality Act, prevents the provision of asylum to any individual who seeks admission into the US on the basis of fraud or willful misrepresentation of a material fact5.

Intellectual Skills in Males and Females Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Intellectual Skills in Males and Females - Essay Example Past and current research confirms that male and female intellectual skill differences are best explained and caused by socialization, not genetics. In fact, the intellectual and Behavioural differences between the genders are not instilled at birth but are the result of society's expectations (Bates, 2007). In spite of the behavioural differences between boys and girls in their childhood, the differences become starker as they grow older. The reason for this increase in intellectual difference is exaggerated intellectual bias by society and the gendered culture. It is also worth noting that children do not inherit intellectual differences; rather, they learn these differences from society, depending on what society, community or family expects children of each gender to do or to be. Consequently, male children are observed to develop spatial skills faster than girls do. This occurrence is not innate superiority by males but arises from expectations and encouragement by society (Niki ta et al., 2010). For instance, many communities encourage boys to be strong while girls are expected to be overtly emotional and talkative. Hence, girls acquire verbal skills because of emphasis by teachers and parents. Although neuroscientists concur that girls begin speaking at an earlier age than boys do, the gap is quite tiny at childhood, contrary to the notion adopted by supporters of gender-based intellectual differences, which exaggerates this intellectual skill difference across the sexes.

Methods of research Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Methods of research - Assignment Example Answer to Question 2: The first step is to define and refine a topic. Here, the researcher starts with a clearly defined and well-focused research question and a plan. The second step is to design the search. This step involves planning the research strategy at which point the research decides on the type of literature review, its extent, and the forms of literature to include. The third step is locating the research literature. This step depends on the type of literature sought. It is usually advisable that multiple research strategies be employed in order to counteract the limitations of a single search method. The fourth step is evaluating the results and determining what to record. The final step is to write the review. This requires planning and good, clear writing. The aims and objectives of the study need to be kept in mind and then be questioned and evaluated, not just accepted as facts. Answer to Question 3: A keyword is an important term relating to a specific topic, and is likely to be found in a title. Keywords are important in the literature search because they help the researcher obtain relevant information. This is because keywords break down the research problem into its key words or concepts which can be searched with ease. Answer to Question 4: The steps of writing a quantitative review of literature are: identifying the problem or research question; determining the purpose of the study; searching and reviewing the literature relating to the question and developing a framework; defining and refining the research question or formulating a research hypothesis; selecting the research method and determining the design of the study; specifying the group of subjects to be studied. Answer to Question 6: This depends on what sample size she needed but she seems wrong. The first step should have been to determine the population from which the sample was to be selected. Supposing that the town had a population of

Global strategic management Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Global strategic management - Research Paper Example rkets as centres for consumerism and innovation, improvement of productivity in the developed market, expansion of global networks, the issue of sustainability and the strengthening of role of state as a business partner (McKinsey, 2014). The purpose of this paper is to describe these forces in details to find their expected outcome on the future of the business. There may be many other forces that can shape the nature of the business and society in the future. However, this paper only limits itself to the five above mentioned forces as they are expected to create maximum impact on the business activities. Global forces have been described as external forces which creates significant which are beyond the control of the business. The global business environment is filled with examples where business enterprises have missed global trends and they have not been able to survive in the long-run. For the last ten years there has been a massive change in the consumer market. The role of the Western economies especially the U.S.A. as a dominant centre for consumerism and innovation has fallen. This has been accompanied by an equivalent rise of the emerging economies as a centre for consumerism. It has been observed that Asian countries especially India, China, Indonesia, Vietnam and Latin American countries like Brazil, Argentina and Chile have made significant progress in terms of overall GDP growth of the country and the overall level of standard of living (Vlad, et al., 2011). The per capita income of the middle-class people have increased considerably in these countries. This in turn have raised the purchasing power of the people and boosted consumerism. In an empirical research that has been done by Kharas and Gertz (2010) that in the decade of 80’s and early 90’s the high income countries of the OECD which had accounted for 80% of the global output and captured majority of the world economic growth rate. It has been estimated that by 2009 the share of the

The Role of NGOs in Chechen Conflict Research Paper

The Role of NGOs in Chechen Conflict - Research Paper Example When the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991, Chechnya, which was then part Chechen-Ingush Autonomous Republic in Northern Caucasus, also declared its independence. It was in December 1994 that the Russian Federation launched a military operation against the rebelling state. This ended in 1996 with a humiliating defeat for Russia, and Aslan Maskhadov was elected as Chechen President in 1997. However, despite of peace treaty signed between the two countries, Chechnya relapsed in a turmoil that the fairly elected president was unable to control. This was due to the destruction from the war, failure of Russia to provide promised war reparations, external interference by Islamic radicals, swelling crime and inter-Chechen enmities, which granted excuse to the Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin to launch a second war against Chechnya in 1999, in name of combating international terrorism, but with an obvious purpose of forcing Chechnya back into the Federation (Faurby, 1999). The combat continues as a guerrilla war with ample loss of life and resources on both sides and bleak prospects for hostilities to end soon. International humanitarian laws and human rights laws have been extensively violated on both sides. Reports estimate death toll to be around 80000 since, while the number of displaced to the neighbouring Dagestan is estimated to be 300000 (IRC, c.2006). Russian political leaders were insistent that the warfare was an internal matter for Russia, something that many western leaders were eager to approve, as they did not want the Chechen conflict to hinder their relations (Cornell, 1999). This was not only politically problematic, but also a breach of international laws. However, as the Non Governmental Organization (NGOs) like the Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International increase their activities in human rights field by bringing to light the violations and lobbying

The Balanced Scorecard and Its Application to Hospitality Businesess Essay Example for Free

The Balanced Scorecard and Its Application to Hospitality Businesess Essay This essay will try to explore the role of the Balanced Scorecard in today’s organisations, in particular in hospitality businesses. The research will start by exploring performance measurement and later will describe the basics of the Balanced Scorecard to finish with a practical example of the implications of not applying correctly a performance measurement system in a hospitality business. Performance measurement is described by Neely et al (1995) as the process of quantifying action, where measurement is the process of quantification and action leads to performance. Therefore performance measure is the metric used to quantify the efficiency and effectiveness of an action. These actions refers in other words to the changes that an organisation experiment by achieving performance goals through allocating and prioritising resources. This valuable information is later used by managers to conform or modify their strategies in order to meet these goals. Performance measurement is crucial in today’s organisations because: †¢It helps identifying and tracking progress against organisational goals †¢It helps comparing performance against both internal and external standards. Ensures customer requirements have been met †¢Helps setting sensible objectives and work towards them †¢Provides a physical scoreboard for employees to monitor their performance †¢Highlights quality problems and suggest areas for action (Kald and Nilsson 2000) Within this context, the Balanced Scorecard (BSC) can be described as a strategic performance management framework that integrates a coherent set of performance measures with the organisation’s strategic plan. This allows organisations to define their strategic priorities and design indicators to monitor how well they are executing their strategy. Kaplan Norton, 1992). The main innovation from this approach is that it provides a multifaceted view of the organisation’s performance and balances the traditionally observed financial measures with other operational non-financial measures. The architects of the Balanced Scorecard, professor Robert Kaplan and David Norton believed that traditional performance measures based on financial information alone provide a very partial and short-term view of the performance of an organisation as they measure past performance and offer very little to support organisations on their quality journey. Kaplan Norton 1996). In this aspect, other analysts have added that financial measurements alone are insufficient to provide relevant information about a company’s root problems (Malone Sinnett, 2005), it overlooks the intangible enablers of the business (Norreklit, 2000) and disregards value creation (Bicheno, 2008). All this comes to demonstrate that financial measures are simply a consequence of operational activities and only by getting the fundamentals right, the organisation will be able to provide successful financial results. Taking all this into account, Kaplan and Norton identified the most intuitive components of a company’s strategy and created a more robust and balanced set of measurements that go beyond the financials. It all starts with a vision or a strategic goal and from there managers articulate a set of objectives, measures and targets in four key perspectives. The first is the financial perspective or how do the company look to shareholders. Metrics like the return on investment and residual income provide still valuable information but as already mentioned, not enough to create future value. In order to deliver any financial objectives, we need first to deliver to customers, which is the second perspective. In this perspective are articulated performance measures related to customer satisfaction and the key performance indicators should answer to the question, how customers see us?. In a similar way, in order to do well what the company does for the customers, it is necessary to identify what are the vital things the organisation needs to excel at in order to implement the strategy. This is the third perspective and Kaplan and Norton call it internal processes. This approach measures aspects related to the core of the what the organisation does in order to generate profit. Finally the fourth perspective looks at the intangible enablers of the business or the learning and growth perspective. Aspects like retaining the right human capital and keeping them engaged, investing in a good IT infrastructure, or having the right organisation culture, will help the business to do the right things internally, which helps to deliver to the customer which ultimately helps to deliver the financial objectives. A very important step is choosing the aspects the company will measure in order to achieve the strategic vision. These measures are known as key performance indicators (KPI’s). Choosing the appropriate KPI’s is a crucial as they will monitor the progress towards specific goals. According to Kaplan Norton (1996), KPI’s should be meaningful, unambiguous and easy to understand by all the members of the organisation. They should collect relevant data embedded in the normal organisation’s procedures, they also need to be able to drive improvement and should be intrinsically linked to the critical goals and key drivers of the organisation. In order to implement the Balanced Scorecard approach, Kaplan Norton (1996) identified three levels of information. The first level sits at the very top of the organisation and is where the corporate objectives are defined, the second one translates the corporate targets into more specific targets for each business unit and the third is the team and individual level where specific objectives are articulated which means that everyone in the organisation is aligned with the top level objectives. Since its creation in the 1990’s, the BSC has evolved from a simple dashboard of performance measures into a comprehensive management system that aims to channel the abilities and specific knowledge of each member of the organisation towards achieving long term strategic goals. Due to its simplicity, it is reported that it was the most widely adopted performance measurement framework in 2010. Over 50% of Fortune 1000 firms now use the BSC methodology and an estimate 85% have adopted some kind of performance measurement. Also, the BSC was selected by a panel from the Harvard Business Review as one of the most influential management ideas of the past 75 years. (Harvard Business Review, 2013) However, the implementation of the BSC is not free of challenges and many authors find numerous flaws. Thomas (2004) for instance argue that the BSC simply provides a list of metric results and lacks recommendations and advice. Besides there is little evidence that shows that the use of the BSC improves decision making as many companies seem to fail to act on its findings. Smith (2013) also highlights other important concerns when implementing the BSC: -There is a risk for unclear and poorly designed metrics. -There is a lack of efficient data collection and reporting, particularly non-financial metrics. -It has no process improvement methodology. -It is very inwardly focused. If environmental factors such as threats and Opportunities are not considered, the BSC may not present a correct picture of the organisation in the market. Critical assessment of the application of the BSC in a hospitality business Although the BSC has been deployed widely amongst businesses, government organisations and even non-profit organisations, research show that it has been minimally applied within hospitality businesses (Gunasekaran et al. 2001). In my own personal experience working for Premium Country Dining Group, part of Mitchells Butlers, the leading operator of restaurants and pubs in the UK, I have struggled to perceive evidence of the implementation of the BSC or any other framework for performance measurement in the business. After 15 months working for the organisation I still don’t know what the company’s strategic objectives are in the short term and what specific contributions towards those goals are expected from me as an employee. Is difficult to identify who is to blame for this, but the reality is that the strategic vision hasn’t permeated down the organisation. On the contrary, every day I see evidence that comes to show that the main source of comparative information used to measure performance and efficiency are still the traditional financial and accounting reports, which has been proven to provide a poor and inadequate view of the business in terms of helping decision making and provide strategic directions. Financial ratios such as net operating profit, labour costs or average covers per day are commonly used in the business to evaluate performance and are the main factors considered when forecasting in terms of ordering of food and drink, preparation levels of food and staffing. These ratios along with good doses of intuition and past experience seem to be the main drivers to lead the company which in words of Kaplan and Norton (1996) is like trying to drive a car just by looking at the mirrors. Although the restaurant has the customer at its core. Although both front and back of the house do their best in order to provide a quality product, quick service and the best customer experience possible and although the company’s motto: â€Å"Simply amazing pubs† may give a hint about the strategic direction of the company, all these are failing to materialize because of the lack of a solid strategic performance management framework and a good set of key performance indicators that could highlight where are we failing, why customers complain and why our business is buried down on the Tripadvisor rankings and there is no plans for action. It is obvious that the company is disregarding the internal processes, as can be seen in the high staff turnover, lack of encouragement for employees to grow, and tight cost-control in maintenance which leads to difficulties in doing our job effectively. This consequently leads to long waiting times for customers and a poor service due to short staffing (customer perspective), and ultimately this poor service and unsatisfied customers affects the much regarded financial results. Definitely a more organised approach to process design and the inclusion of non-financial performance dimensions would result in an increase of overall business effectiveness. Conclusion This research has found that the Balanced Scorecard or any other framework for measuring performance such as the performance pyramid, the performance matrix or the EFQM business excellence model, are effective tools in bringing together previously disparate measures into more coherent models. In the case of the BSC, it has proven to be particularly successful in adding a much needed non-financial perspective to measuring performance and as Fitzgerald et al (1991) points, encouraging organisations to continually improve, innovate and expand their capabilities in order to gain competitive advantage, understand customer’s needs and adapt to the changing environment.

Virginia Woolf | A Modernist Perspective

Virginia Woolf | A Modernist Perspective Virginia Woolfs novels incorporate the quintessential elements of the modern experience. I will explore the literary expression of these characteristics in relation to three of Woolfs novels: Mrs Dalloway, The Waves and To the Light House. Firstly, I will analyse the modernist perspective in relation to form, narrative technique, structural dynamic, gender etc. I will also investigate Woolfs materialization of time and how its constant reflections on the past incorporate a manifestation with the progression of actuality. I will also deconstruct the thematic ideologies envisioned in Woolfs texts and relate them to the exhibition of contemporary being. This part of the dissertation will focus centrally on the technical and modernist aspects of Woolfs writings The second part of the thesis will conceptualize the sociological and political background of Woolfs narratives. I will unravel the historical constructions and implications of her compositions. I will explore the concrete reality and the space that occupies the fictional fabrications of her novels. I will analyse Woolfs encapsulation of the city as a medium that shapes and conceptualizes aesthetic experience. I will explore her representations of the urban landscape and social environment and relate them to the theoretical investigations promulgated by critical interpretations of the metropolis. I will also analyze Woolfs exhibition of the city as a transitionary space in which sociological models are deconstructed and materialized. 3) Structure Introduction: Woolf as the quintessential modernist. This particular chapter will explore the general interpretations and influences of the modernist writer. It will offer an overview and introduction of Woolfs works. I will explore Woolfs idiosyncratic depictions of reality and how this complex process became the central preoccupations of the 19th century modernist writer. I will also deconstruct the radical innovations of the modernist experience and how these cultural, political, economical and historical productions destabilized the conventional constructs of actuality. Chapter 1: Past as a continuous presence, literary experiments with time: the experience of linear temporality and contemporary being in Virginia Woolfs novels. In this chapter I will analyze the influential dynamic of the past and how its materialization can formulate contemporary moments of temporality. I will particularly examine Mrs Dalloway. I will investigate the modernist production and representations of psychological and impersonal time. This chapter will incorporate a variety of critical theorist such as Henri Bergson and how his theoretical implications and materializations of time had consequential implications on the modernist aesthetic. Chapter 2: Experimental perspectives: the exploration of modern representations of the unconscious in Virginia Woolfs The Waves. This chapter will incorporate an exploration of the subjective experience presented in Woolfs narrative. I will investigate the exposition of Woolfs stream of consciousness technique and its consequential implications on the aspects and productions of the modernist experience. Chapter 3: Historical representations: a panoramic view of class and social structure in Woolfs Mrs Dalloway I will explore the social dynamic of Woolfs novels in this third chapter. I hope to encapsulate an entire perspective and viewpoint of the social world of Woolfs narratives. I will explore the social relationships that are represented in the text in particular in Mrs Dalloway. Chapter 4: The City as an aesthetic experience: metropolitan modernity in Woolfs novels. In this chapter I will incorporate an intense investigation on the depiction of the urban landscape displayed in Woolfs novels. I will uncover the aesthetic perspectives of the metropolis and consider its dynamic as a fluctuating and transformative space. I will also examine the different forms in which she presents the city as an aesthetic, irresolute and wavering experience. Chapter 5: A feminist critique: understanding Woolfs perspective. This particular chapter will offer an exploration on Woolfs representations and constructions of gender relations. I will also investigate the depictions of gender stereotypes in relation to class division and structure. Working Bibliography Ayers, David, Modernism: A Short Introduction. Blackwell, 2004. Print. Black, N. Virginia Woolf as feminist. Cornell University Press, 2004 Bradbury, Malcolm James McFarlane, eds. Modernism: 1830-1930. Penguin, 1976. Print. Bridge, Gary Sophie Watson. The Blackwell City Reader. Blackwell, 2002. Print. Briggs, J. Reading Virginia Woolf. Edinburgh University Press, 2006. Print. Brooker, Peter. Geographies of Modernism. Routledge, 2005. Print. Coverley, Merlin, London Writing. Pocket Essentials, 2005. Print. Cuddy-Keane, Melba, Virginia Woolf, the Intellectual, and the Public Sphere. Cambridge UP, 2003.Print. De Certeau. Michel, The Practice of Everyday Life. California UP, 1988. Print. DeBord, Guy, The Society of the Spectacle. Rebel Press, 1992. Print. Dettmar, Kevin. Rereading the new: a backward glance at modernism. University of Michigan Press, 1992. Print Eysteinsson, Astradur. The Concept of Modernism. Cornell UP, 1990. Print. Faulkner, Peter, Modernism. Routledge, 1990. Print. Froula, Christine, Virginia Woolf and the Bloomsbury Avant-Garde: War, Civilization, Modernity . Columbia UP, 2005. Print. Goldman, J. The feminist aesthetics of Virginia Woolf: modernism, post-impressionism and the politics of the visual. University Press, 2001. Print. Goldman, Jane, Modernism, 1910-1945: Image to Apocalypse. Palgrave, 2003.Print. Goldman, Jane, The Cambridge Introduction to Virginia Woolf .Cambridge U P, 2006. Print. Hanson, Clare, Virginia Woolf . Macmillan, 1994. Print Humm, M. Modernist women and visual cultures: Virginia Woolf, Vanessa Bell, photography, and cinema. Rutgers University Press, 2003. Print. Kern, Stephen, The Culture of Time and Space, 1880-1918. Harvard UP, 1983. Print. Kolocotroni, Vassili et al (eds), Modernism: An Anthology. Edinburgh UP, 1998. Print. Lee, Hermione, Virginia Woolf . Chatto and Windus, 1996. Print. Lee, Hermoine. The novels of Virginia Woolf. Taylor Francis, 1977. Print. Lefebvre, Henri, The Production of Space. Blackwell, 1991. Print. Levenson, Michael, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Modernism. Cambridge UP, 1998. Matz, Jesse. The modern novel: a short introduction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2004. Print. Nicholls, Peter, Modernisms: A Literary Guide. Macmillan, 1995. Print. Olsen, Donald J., The City as a Work of Art .Yale UP, 1986. Print. Rainey, Lawrence, Modernism: An Anthology . Blackwell, 2005.Print. Scott, Bonnie Kime.,ed. The Gender of Modernism: A Critical Anthology . Indiana UP, 1990. Print. Squier, Susan Merrill, Virginia Woolf and London: The Sexual Politics of the City. North Carolina UP, 1985. Print. Stevenson, R. Modernist fiction: an introduction. University Press of Kentucky, 1992. Print. Weston, Richard, Modernism. Phaidon, 1996.Print. Whitworth, Michael. H. Virginia Woolf. Oxford University Press, 2005. Print. Williams, Raymond, The Politics of Modernism. Verso, 1989. Print. Wilson, Jean Moorcroft, Virginia Woolf: Life and London. Woolf, 1987. Print. Wolfreys, Julian, Writing London: Materiality, Memory, Spectrality, Vol.2. Palgrave, 2004. Print. Woolf, Virginia. To the lighthouse. Oxford University Press, 2006. Print. Woolf, Virginia. Mrs Dalloway. Penguin Woolf, Virginia. The Waves. Collectors library, 2003. Zwerdling, Alex. Virginia Woolf and the Real World.University of California Press, 1987. Print. Articles Abbott H. P. Character and Modernism: Reading Woolf Writing Woolf New Literary History, 24.2, Reconsiderations (Spring, 1993): 393-405 Banfield, Ann. Time Passes: Virginia Woolf, Post-Impressionism, and Cambridge Time Poetics Today, 24. 3, Theory and History of Narrative (2003): 471-516 Brian Phillips Reality and Virginia Woolf Reality and Virginia Woolf The Hudson Review, 56.3 (2003): 415-430 King, James. Review: Wallowing in Woolf Molly HiteReviewed work(s): Virginia Woolf The Womens Review of Books,13.2 (1995): 5-6 Paul Tolliver Brown Relativity, Quantum Physics, and Consciousness in Virginia Woolfs To the Lighthouse Journal of Modern LiteratureHYPERLINK http://muse.jhu.edu.eproxy.ucd.ie/journals/journal_of_modern_literature/toc/jml.32.3.html, 32.3. (2HYPERLINK http://muse.jhu.edu.eproxy.ucd.ie/journals/journal_of_modern_literature/toc/jml.32.3.html009):39-62 Pawlowski, Merry M. Virginia Woolfs Veil: The Feminist Intellectual and the Organization of Public Space MFS Modern Fiction StudiesHYPERLINK http://muse.jhu.edu.eproxy.ucd.ie/journals/modern_fiction_studies/toc/mfs53.4.html, 53. 4. (HYPERLINK http://muse.jhu.edu.eproxy.ucd.ie/journals/modern_fiction_studies/toc/mfs53.4.html2007): 722-751. Seshagiri, Urmila. Orienting Virginia Woolf: Race, Aesthetics, and Politics in To the Lighthouse. MFS Modern Fiction StudiesHYPERLINK http://muse.jhu.edu.eproxy.ucd.ie/journals/modern_fiction_studies/toc/mfs50.1.html, 50.1. (HYPERLINK http://muse.jhu.edu.eproxy.ucd.ie/journals/modern_fiction_studies/toc/mfs50.1.html2004) 58-84 Taylor, Chloe .Kristevan Themes in Virginia WoolfHYPERLINK http://www.jstor.org.eproxy.ucd.ie/stable/3831688?Search=yessearchText=woolfsearchText=virginialist=hidesearchUri=/action/doBasicSearch?Query=virginia+woolfacc=onwc=onprevSearch=item=3ttl=15185returnArticleService=showFullTextHYPERLINK http://www.jstor.org.eproxy.ucd.ie/stable/3831688?Search=yessearchText=woolfsearchText=virginialist=hidesearchUri=/action/doBasicSearch?Query=virginia+woolfacc=onwc=onprevSearch=item=3ttl=15185returnArticleService=showFullTexts HYPERLINK http://www.jstor.org.eproxy.ucd.ie/stable/3831688?Search=yessearchText=woolfsearchText=virginialist=hidesearchUri=/action/doBasicSearch?Query=virginia+woolfacc=onwc=onprevSearch=item=3ttl=15185returnArticleService=showFullTextHYPERLINK http://www.jstor.org.eproxy.ucd.ie/stable/3831688?Search=yessearchText=woolfsearchText=virginialist=hidesearchUri=/action/doBasicSearch?Query=virginia+woolfacc=onwc=onprevSearch=item=3ttl=15185returnArticleService=showFullTextThe WavesHYPERLINK http://www.jstor.org.eproxy.ucd.ie/stable/3831688?Search=yessearchText=woolfsearchText=virginialist=hidesearchUri=/action/doBasicSearch?Query=virginia+woolfacc=onwc=onprevSearch=item=3ttl=15185returnArticleService=showFullText . Journal of Modern Literature, 29.3 (2006): 57-77

History Of English Language Teaching

History Of English Language Teaching Today, English is the worlds most widely studied foreign language. Five hundred years ago, Latin was the most dominant language to be studied because it was the language of business, commerce and education in the western world. In the sixteenth century, however, French, Italian and English gain in importance as a result of political change in Europe and Latin gradually became displaced as a language of spoken and written communication (Richards and Rodgers, 2001). Latin became a dead language. It was being started to read in the books as classic language. Children started to enter in the grammar school in sixteenth and eighteenth centuries to learn grammar rules of Latin. To learn Latin language became a mental gymnastic. In the eighteenth century, when modern languages began to enter in the curriculum of the European countries, these languages were taught by the same methods as Latin language was taught. Grammatical rules were memorized. Written practices were done. The passages were translated from the second language to the first language and vice versa (ibid). By the nineteenth century, this method was considered as a standard method of teaching language. The textbooks were divided into chapters. Each chapter contained a certain grammatical rule and rule was practices with a lot of written exercises (ibid). Methods and Approaches of English Language Teaching According to Asher and James (1982), Methods are the combination of techniques that are used and plasticized by the teachers in the classrooms in order to teach their students and approaches are the philosophies of teachers about language teaching that can be applied in the classrooms by using different techniques of language teaching. For example, if a teacher has an approach that language is the communication and learning a language is in fact learning the meanings, functions and uses of language. So the techniques will be based on the communicative language teaching and task based methods. According to Freeman (2000), Methods which are taught to the teachers make a base and give them thinking about the applicable techniques and principles according to the situation where they stand. They are clear about their attraction towards certain methods and also think that why have they repelled certain method. The knowledge of method is very necessary because their knowledge is base of teaching. Grammar Translation Method Grammar translation method was the most popular and widely used method for language teaching between the ages of 1840 to 1940. But this method was first used for teaching and learning Latin language which was not the language of common use at that time. Latin was considered as a classic language. The learners were made able to study the literature of Latin language through learning the grammatical rules of language and learning the vocabulary so that learners may translate the language in their first language and in the second language. Grammar translation method was criticized intensively in the nineteenth century because it was considered that this method cannot fulfill the demands of language learning in nineteenth century. Direct Method The direct method was the outcome of the reaction against the grammar translation method. It was based on the assumption that the learners of foreign and second language should directly think in English. This method is against the translation of written and oral text and focuses on telling the meanings of the words through action, demonstration or real objects. This method focuses on directly thinking, doing discussion and conversation in second language (Richards and Rodgers, 2001). Purwarno (2006) described the aims of the direct method. He described that direct method is an attempt and effort to form a link between thought and expression and between experience and language. Direct method was criticized due to the following reasons: Direct method is successful in private language schools because this method can be applied only in small classes where all the learners can get individual attention. In Direct method, the teachers extravagantly excel in keeping the mother tongue of the learners away from them. Direct method demands the learners to do oral communication in the second language and it also demands the pronunciation and accent to be just like the native speakers so there is need for the language school to hire the native speakers which actually can be very expensive. The success of the direct method depends on the teachers skills and personality more than on the methodology (Richards and Rodgers, 1986). Structural Approach The structural approach mainly employs the techniques of the direct method but the reading and writing skills are not wholly neglected. The structural approach is based on the sound principles of language learning. The structural approach says that the arrangement of the words in such a way as to form a suitable pattern and that pattern may make the meanings of the language clear to us. Any language has its own structure and skeleton which gives this language a decent appearance. A structure is a pattern and a particular arrangement of words which to indicate grammatical meanings. It may be a word, a phrase or a sentence (Gauridushi, 2011). Structural approach was criticized because it was only suitable for lower grades. Continuous teaching of structures and their repetition make the atmosphere dull and boring. It also neglected the reading and writing abilities and there was also a lack of skilled teachers (Sharma, 2011). Oral Approach/ Situational Language Teaching The oral approach is a method in which children to use whatever hearing they get from their surroundings. They also take help from the context to understand and use language. The target is to develop the skills in the individual so that he can communicate and function independently. This approach helps in the development of reading and writing skills (Richards and Rodgers, 2001). The oral approach was developed from 1930s to the 1960s by British applied linguistics such as Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornsby. The main difference between oral approach and the direct method was that the methods which were developed under this approach had theoretical principles about the selection, grading and presentation of the content and material. This sequencing of the content would lead to better learning with a good knowledge of vocabulary and grammatical patterns. In this approach all the points of language were to be presented in situations which led to the second name of the approach i.e. situational language teaching. Although, the teachers are not aware of this approach today but it had long lasting impact on language learning. However, its focus on oral practice, grammar and sentence patterns is still supported by the teachers (ibid). Audiolingual Method Audiolingual method is also known as Army Method because after the outbreak of World War II, the army soldiers decided to be proficient in the languages of their enemies. So a new learning method of foreign languages was discovered which is known as audiolingual method. This method is based on a linguistic theory and behavioral psychology. The audiolingual method was widely used in the 1950s and 1960s and the emphasis was not on the understanding of the words rather on acquisition of structures and patterns in common everyday dialogues (Richards and Rodgers, 2001). The teaching of the oral skills with accurate pronunciation, grammar and the ability to respond quickly and accurately is the main objective of audiolingual method. Reading and writing skills may be taught but they are dependent on the oral skills (Richard and Rodgers, 1986). Total Physical Response In Total Physical Response (TPR), the teacher gives the students instructions and the students follow the instructions by using whole body responses. James J. Asher, a professor, of psychology at San Jose State University developed the method Total Physical Response in late 1960s to help in learning second languages (Richards and Rodgers, 2001). According to Asher (1977), TPR is based on the premise that the human brain has a biological program for acquiring any natural language on earth including the sign language of the deaf. We can see this process if we observe the language learning process of an infant. The communication between parents and the child consists of both verbal and physical aspects. When the child is not able to speak, at the time he/she is internalizing the language. This is the time when code breaking occurs. After this process the child becomes able to speak and reproduce language. In TPR, the teacher repeats the process in the class. Students respond to the commands of the teacher which require physical movement. TPR is most useful for beginners. TPR is also used for teaching students with dyslexia or related learning disabilities. Silent Way Silent way is the method of language teaching which was proposed by Caleb Gattegno. This method is based on the view that the teachers should be silent in the classroom as much as possible but the teacher must encourage the students to speak and use the language. The most important aspect of this method is its elements that are used for language teaching i.e. colored charts and colored rods (Richards and Rodgers, 2001). This method focuses on the learners to discover on their own rather than they remember or memorize something. The learners are facilitated in learning by giving them some problem to solve which involves the materials that are needed to be learnt (ibid). Communicative Language Teaching Communicative language teaching was developed in the era of revolutions in British language teaching traditions from late 1960s. Before communicative language teaching, situational language teaching was in practice in Britain for language teaching. Communicative language teaching was actually developed in the opposition of audiolingual method which focuses on drilling and memorization. Communicative language teaching focuses on developing the ability of communication in learners in real life situations. It focuses on meaning rather than accuracy (Richards and Rodgers, 2001). Natural Approach In 1977, Tracey Terrell proposed the natural approach of language teaching. This approach was influenced by Stephen Krashens theory of language acquisition. The natural approach focuses on communication as the major function of language. In this approach, language is considered as the vehicle or means of conveying a message and information. The natural approach was actually based on the observation and understanding of the acquisition of the first and the second language in informal settings (Richards and Rodgers, 2001). Task-based Language Teaching Task- based language teaching is an approach that is based on the assumption that tasks are the major unit of language learning. This approach is based on the problem solving view that the learners should be given some tasks to be solved. These tasks are related to the language structures that are required to be learnt. The learners interact and communicate with each other during solving these problems. In these way, they learn the language (Richards and Rodgers, 2001). Comparison between Grammar Translation Method and Communicative Language Teaching Grammar Translation Method Grammar translation method was first known in the United States as Prussian Method. Grammar translation method dominated European and foreign language teaching from 1840 to 1940. Characteristics of grammar translation method. According to the Richards and Rodgers (2001), the principle characteristics of Grammar Translation Method are: In Grammar Translation Method, the goal of learning a second or foreign language is mainly to be enabling to read the literature of that language and is to get benefit from intellectual development that results from foreign and second language study. Grammar Translation Method enables to learn detailed grammatical rules of target language and enables to translate into and out of the target language. In Grammar Translation Method, reading and writing skills are focused while listening and speaking skills are totally ignored. In Grammar Translation Method, the memorization of grammatical rules of foreign language and of the vocabulary items is focused. Vocabulary items are limited to the text that they are taught. Vocabulary items are memorized with the help of their meanings in the native language. In Grammar Translation Method, sentenced is the basic unit of teaching and language practice. The learners are enabled to do detailed analysis of a sentence through this method. The learners are enabled to translate a sentence into and out of the target language. In Grammar Translation Method, accuracy is emphasized rather than fluency. The basic purpose of this method used to be able to pass the written examinations. In Grammar Translation Method, grammar is taught deductively i.e. by presenting and practicing the detailed grammatical rules of target language. A syllabus of grammatical rules if followed in which rules are systematically put in to a sequence starting from the simple rules to the complex rules. In Grammar Translation Method, students are directed and instructions are given in the students native language so that they may easily understand the instructions. The students native language is used to explain new items and to enable them to compare two languages i.e. native language of the learners and foreign language. Main techniques associated with grammar translation method. There are some major techniques that are adopted in the teaching of second or foreign language through Grammar Translation Method. Translation of a literary passage. Students translate a reading passage into and out of the target language. In checking of the translation, the focus of the teacher is on vocabulary and grammatical structures. The translation may be written or spoken or both. Students should not translate idioms but must understand their meanings. Reading Comprehension Questions. A passage for reading and understanding is given to the students and they have to answer the questions given at the end of the passage in the target language. The questions are put into a sequence. The first group of questions is related with the information drawn from the passage, second group of questions require students to make inferences based on their understanding of the passage. The third group of questions requires students to relate the passage with their own experiences. Antonym and synonyms. Students are given a list of words and a passage. The students have to find out the antonyms of those words in the passage. Similarly, the students can also be given a list of words and can be asked to find out the synonyms of the given words from the passage. Deductive application of rules. Grammar rules are presented before the students with the all possible information that can be given to the students relating to the grammatical rules. The rules are also explained with examples. Once students understand a rule, they are asked to apply it for some different examples. Fill in the blanks. The students are given a series of sentences with some missing words. The students have to fill in the blanks with some suitable grammar items such a preposition and verbs with different tenses Memorization. The students are given a list of vocabulary to memorize them with their meaning in the native language. Students are also required to memorize the grammatical rules. Use words in sentences. In order to check the understanding of the meaning and sue of vocabulary, the students are asked to use the list of typical words in their own sentences. Composition. The teacher gives a topic to the students to write about that topic in the target language. The topic is based on some aspect of the reading passage of the lesson (Freeman, 1986). Advantages of grammar translation method. Nazir (2002) narrated as The structure of a foreign language is best learnt when compare and contrasted with that of the mother tongue. According to Ishtiaq (2005), the Grammar Translation Method is based on a system and is in a sequence because in this method all the grammatical rules are arranged into a sequence for the convenience of the students. This sequence starts from the simple rules and eventually leads to the complex rules. When a book is written by an author on grammatical rules keeping in view the sequence, he writes one lesson that is completely based on one rule of grammar. Each lesson is divided into certain rules and these rules dominate the lesson. Larson (1986) narrated importance of Grammar Translation Method as in Grammar Translation Method, students are made to learn new words. Therefore, this method helps in improving vocabulary. Reading and writing are the two primary skills that are developed most so as to enable the students to read the literature in target language. Grammar is taught deductively and it makes use of students mother language. Disadvantages of grammar translation method. Neilson (2003) stated that in Grammar Translation Method, oral skills i.e. speaking and listening skills are totally neglected while the whole attention is given to just reading and writing skills. Through this method, the students become able to read the literature of the target language by translating it into their native language but cannot communicate into the target language and even cannot understand the target language spoken by any native speaker. In Grammar Translation Method, the authority of the classroom is totally in the hands of the teacher and teacher is at the centre of the classroom. The communication is just from teachers to students not from student to teacher and not even from students to students. The students are considered empty minded which have needed to be filled with all the possible vocabulary and grammatical structures that can be filled in their minds (ibid). The main disadvantage of the Grammar Translation Method is that it is almost impossible to translate all the phrases and sentences into the target language because the main focus is the translation of this method so such students who have been taught through this method become fail to communicate well in the target language (ibid). In the Grammar Translation Method, accuracy is emphasized rather than fluency and students go on thinking to accurate the grammatical rules which actually hinder their fluency. In Grammar Translation Method, the teacher abruptly interferes and stops the students wherever they make the mistakes so they become conscious while speaking and communicating in the target language and become unable to be fluent (ibid). Criticism of the grammar translation method. There have been various criticisms on the use of Grammar Translation Method for the teaching of modern language particularly English. There are some objections that have been put on the Grammar Translation Method. Grammar Translation Method emphasizes on the reading and writing skills on the expense of listening and speaking skills. But learning the listening and speaking skills of a language is more important than leaning reading and writing skills because it is a natural way of learning a language. In Grammar Translation Method, writing gives learners a reflective chance to look at their writing that whether they have written correct spellings, vocabulary and grammatical rules. The main aim and goal of most of the learners in learning modern languages is not just to develop reading and writing skills whereas they want to communicate well and understand the native speakers language. Grammar Translation Method demands the arrangement of the grammatical rules in a structure starting from the simple rules and leading to the complex rules. While most of the learners especially adult learners want to start using the language straight way because they have not got time to learn all the grammatical rules one by one and start using them after then. Grammar Translation Method emphasizes to make the students learn each rule and practice it one by one and after commanding a rule move to the next one. So there remains the need to revise all the rules again and again so that they may not get washed out of the learners mind. In Grammar Translation Method, sentence is the basic unit of the language. The learners are made able to memorize certain rules of grammar and certain vocabulary which they have to fit everywhere they find a chance to use them. But if learners find some unusual situation they become unable to fit their memorized rules to fit in that situation. In Grammar Translation Method, grammatical rules and vocabulary is memorized in modern ways of teaching a language memorization is not regarded while exposure of a language, experience and use of language is preferred and recommended. People have different learning styles. Some people like to learn vocabulary, grammar rules, phrase and sentences through memorization. But when they have to sue them, they must have time to stop and recall the memorized items. In Grammar Translation Method, the focus of the learners is the manipulation of the grammatical rules and words to write correct sentences with prescribed content. But in learning the modern languages, it is recommended that the major focus should be more and more on the oral practice and expression of the personal meanings. The expression of the personal meanings may spoil the structure of the grammar rules and sentences. In Grammar Translation Method, the teachers and the learners mostly speak in their first language or native language. While it is highly recommended that use of second and target language should be maximized in learning the language but here maximization does not mean teachers and learners should all the time speak in the target language. The speaking of the second language is also advantageous because in language classrooms we may also have multilingual learners that may belong to different languages so a single language i.e. second or target language will be convenient to use without pointing a single native language. In Grammar Translation Method, teacher should explain, describe the grammatical rules, tell the meanings of the words, translate the passages, conduct grammar practices, correct mistakes and teacher should authorized the classroom and learners. But now it is highly recommended that teachers role in the class should be as a guide and facilitator. Teachers role in the language classroom should be less. Teacher should act behind the scene. Teacher should give the problems to the learners to solve, interact among each other and generally it leads the learners to be independent learners. In Grammar Translation Method, translation is the basic technique. Translation is a way of understanding the meanings of the written and oral texts by converting the texts into the first or native language of the learners. Translation is a way of comparing and contrasting two languages i.e. first language and second language. But now it is highly recommended that translation should be avoided because it leads to such a mental process which hinders or stops learning. The learners should be encouraged to speak and even think in second language as much as possible. In Grammar Translation Method, accuracy is emphasized rather than fluency but it is now highly recommended that accuracy should come at the last and fluency should preferred first. If the learners are corrected on their mistakes from the very beginning, they will become hesitant to speak in the target language. When they will start to speak, their minds will abruptly become read to look upon the grammatical rules that they are using so I this way they will become unable to be fluent in language (Jonathan, 2012).